• Enable Young Farmers to understand the relationship between agriculture and environment, and

• Use the information provided to plan future farming activities.

You should use the information provided to enable you to ask the right sorts of questions and get appropriate “no nonsense” answers from local experts and those authorities in your Country charged with regulating and controlling the provisions of the Common Agricultural Policy and environment protection.

1.1 Cereals
1.2 Legumes
1.3 Specialized Cultivations
1.4 Industrial Plants
1.5 Specialized Cultivations in Tropical Countries

2. Livestock Farming
3. Agricultural Effects on Natural Resources and Human Health

3.1 Soil
3.1.1 Effects from Mechanical Cultivation
3.1.2 Effects from Irrigation
3.1.3 Effects from Fertilization
3.1.4 Effects from Pesticides
3.1.5 Effects from Various Farming Practices
3.1.6 Effects from the Use of Improved Plants
3.2 Water
3.2.1 Effects from Livestock Wastes
3.2.2 Effects from Agrochemicals
3.3 Agricultural Landscapes
3.4 Atmosphere
3.5 Biodiversity – Genetic Diversification
3.6 Livestock Effect on Environment

4. Pesticides

4.1 What Becomes of Pesticides in the Environment
4.2 Effects from the Use of Pesticides
4.2.1 Results from the Use of Pesticides into the Biological Community
4.2.2 Decrease of Available Foodstuffs
4.2.3 Decrease of Competitors
4.2.4 Decrease of Biological Invaders
4.2.5 Decrease of the Biodiversity in the Biological
Community
4.2.6 Effects on Species Succession
4.3 Effects of Pesticides on Health

5. Agricultural Waste Management

5.1 General
5.2 Agricultural Wastes
5.3 Agricultural Waste Management Systems
5.4 Agricultural Waste Management Methods
5.5 Waste per Livestock Unit Category
5.5.1 Sheep and Goat Wastes
5.5.2 Poultry Wastes
5.5.3 Cowsheds’ Wastes
5.5.4 Swine Wastes

6. Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages, Problems, Prospects

6.1 Sustainable Development
6.2 Sustainable Agriculture
6.3 Practices and Systems
6.3.1 Low Input Agriculture
6.3.2 Integrated Farming Systems
6.3.3 Organic/Biological Agriculture – Livestock
6.3.4 Reduced Land Cultivation Systems

7. New Technologies in Agriculture-Genetic Engineering

7.1 Genetic Engineering and Conventional Plant Cultivation
7.1.1 Genetic Modification
7.1.2 Examples of Genetic Modification of Plants
7.2 Consequences in Human Health
7.2.1 Allergies
7.2.2 Toxins
7.2.3 Resistance Development to Antibiotics
7.2.4 Use of GM Plants for Pharmaceutical Reasons
7.3 Consequences in Agriculture and the Environment
7.3.1 Consequences from the Use of GM Plants with High Resistance to Pesticides
7.3.2 Consequences from the Use of GM Plants with Resistance to Insects
7.3.3 Use of GM in Other Agronomic and Quality Features
7.3.4 The Irreversible Consequences of GMO Use
7.3.5 GM Plants as “Parasites” and “Invaders”
7.4 Coexistence of Genetically Modified Cultivations with
Conventional and Organic Cultivations
7.4.1 Consequences Resulting from the Coexistence of Genetically Modified and Non GM Cultivations

8. Agro-Environmental Regulations of the EU

8.1 Agro-Environmental Measures
8.2 Action Program 2000 – Cross Compliance
8.3 Agriculture and Biodiversity
8.4 Genetic Resources and Agriculture
8.5 Agriculture and Genetically Modified Organisms
8.6 Agriculture and Climate Change
8.7 Agriculture and Soil Protection
8.8 Agriculture and Pesticides
8.9 Agriculture and Nitrates Pollution
8.10 Agriculture and Water

9. Characteristics of the EU Enlargement of 2004

9.1 The Current Situation in the 2004 Enlargement Countries
9.2 The Agricultural Situation of ΕU-15
9.3 General Conclusions: Enlargement Agriculture and the Environment
9.4 Hypotheses on the Consequences of Enlargement

10. Conclusion
11. Selected Bibliography and Websites

C. Glossary

6. Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages, Problems, Prospects

6.1     Sustainable Development

The notion of sustainability is an old one (Kalopisis, 1999) and the notion of sustainable development was already been discussed in international organizations since 1968 (IISD 2002). However, its establishment in the current dictionary of politics occurred after the report of WCED entitled «Our Common Future» published in 1987 and is now known as the «Brundtland Report». This report contains the commonly used term of «a development that corresponds to the needs of the present, without endangering the potential of the next generations for covering their own needs». This term has been considered anthropocentric. The most widely known alternate term is the one proposed by the IUCN/UNEP/WWF in 1991 in «Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainable living» and is considered eco-centric: «sustainable development is the improvement of the quality of human life, but within the context of the existing ecosystems». However, this is not the only alternative term, since according to the optical view applied, there have been many other expressions at times (Rotmans et al., 1994). According to one measurement, there have been at least 80 different explanations of “sustainable development” until 2000 (GSRMIT).

The principles of the Rio Declaration specify the dimensions of sustainable development. Firstly there is an economic dimension: «the right to (economic) development has to be fulfilled, so that it can correspond correctly to the developmental and environmental needs of the current and of future generations». Secondly, there is an environmental dimension: «the protection of the environment has to be an integral part of the developmental procedure and should not be dealt with in isolation from that». Thirdly, there is a social dimension: the uprooting of poverty is «a necessary prerequisite for sustainable development, so that various differences in various living circumstances are diminished, and the needs of the majority of people are met».

Figuratively the relation of sustainability with the three dimensions already described matches that of an equilateral triangle where each angle is taken over by a dimension (Mehra και Jørgensen, 1997), or that of three tangential circles (OECD, 2001a, page 22). This is how they are described in Graph 1 when tasks and measures, or principles are given in every dimension (Anonymous, 1992; OECD, 2001a).

Quite often a fourth dimension is used, especially when setting the indicators for the appraisal of development towards sustainability (UN, 2000b), that includes those elements (mentioned in the Rio Declaration) that are proven results of policy measures such as:

• The completion of policies (integration of three dimensions),
• The strengthening of endogenous abilities of states,

 The development, adjustment, spreading and transfer of technology and science, including new and innovative technologies,

• The provision of the necessary information for people
• International pacts and collaborations
• The form of governance and the role of the civil society,
• The legal framework,
• Participation in common acts,
• The readiness to face disasters.

          6.2     Sustainable Agriculture

There is a plethora of definitions for sustainable agriculture too; there is, however, no one commonly acceptable term (Harwood, 1990). The limits of the agricultural system are not clearly defined among interested parties. An overview of the system can be made in various levels and in different periods of time (Wolfert 2002, p. 22).

“Industrialized Agriculture”, according to the tasks it has set and the consequences on the environment, cannot appear as a path leading to sustainable development. Sustainable agriculture should be based on cultivations capable of fulfilling, in the long run, locally, individually, or collectively three basic functions that have to do with the farmers and stock-breeders.

•  The economic function: that is, the production of goods and services that support, directly or indirectly the creation of agricultural occupation.

• The social function, that has to do with land management, in that it encourages farmers and highlights the value of agriculture as a special cultural heritage.

•  The ecological function that is expressed through the conservation of the environment and the agricultural landscape.

Sustainable agriculture, according to the aforementioned functions, is characterized by the following values-tasks: social equality, the right of employment, the exploitation of agricultural land, the protection of the environment and biodiversity (CFDD, 1996).

Therefore the question that arises is the following: In what way can sustainable agriculture manage the problems that already exist in the environment through the exercise of agricultural activity? The answer is simple, since sustainable development has to find ways, on the one hand to increase the capital and on the other hand to protect the natural resources, a fact that presupposes a dynamic development of technology in that direction. Therefore, sustainable agriculture is a matter of political choices, in the areas of production and consumption and technological progress (Loumou, 1999).

Finally, sustainable agriculture puts in doubt, on various levels and scales, previous development strategies. Such examples are the measures taken for the production systems, the actions taken for the local development that is based on the motto “people-place-product”, biological, or even integrated agriculture. That is how the concept of sustainable agriculture emerged (Agenda 2000), as opposed to simple agricultural development.

6.3     Practices and Systems

A more sustainable agriculture:

•  Embodies the procedures of production in foodstuffs and fibres, and applies procedures that occur in nature, like the bonding of phosphorus with the application of special plants, the recycling of nutritious substances and the balance of the “enemies” and the diseases in agrosystems, as well as the fight against their natural competitors (MacRae et al., 1990).

•  Reduces the use and the dependence of outside inflows damaging to the environment, or the health (D’Souza et al., 1993).

•  Exploits the knowledge and the abilities of producers making them more self-reliable (Matteson, 2000).

•  Accounts the social capital, namely the abilities and the relationships of the farmers for facing common problems of management, eg water management, sales and loans etc (Pretty and Hine, 2001; Arellanes and Lee, 2003).

Sustainable agriculture puts emphasis on technologies and practices that are applied and adjusted, to the current techniques, the given facts having to do with the human factor. Basically, agricultural systems with high social and human capital are more flexible and capable of innovations in uncertain situations (Pretty and Hine, 2001).

Systems of production have been developed with clear ideological substance, theoretical frames and approaches regarding the management of agriculture towards sustainability, frames of more sustainable techniques, techniques with a concrete environmental targeting and technological breakthroughs contributing to sustainability (MacRae et al., 1990; Gold 1999; Pretty and Hine, 2001; Siardos and Koutsouris, 2002).

The main alternative agricultural systems, applied worldwide, are the “Low Input Agriculture”, the so-called “Integrated Agriculture” and Biological Agriculture. Equally important is the application of systems of Limited Land Cultivation (FAO, 2003). The development of local/communal nutritious systems and more generally the increase of product extra-value that remains at the producer rarely refers to clear working techniques, it can however be, an important contributor for the sustainability of communities (Pretty and Hine, 2001).

6.3.1 Low Input Agriculture

Low Input Agriculture is based on the reduction but not necessarily the elimination of chemical fertilizers and phytosanitary products or crop protection products. The farmers are adopting “low input agricultural” practices to reduce the cost, minimize environmental effects or comply with the regulations. The performances are kept in high levels, because emphasis is given to cultivation practices and not to inflows. The practices include fertilizers’ and pesticides use control, soil treatment control and use of alternative methods. 

Fertilizers Use Control

The reduction of the quantities of fertilizers used can be balanced with the crop rotation method, especially with legumes, which are a source of nitrogen and other nutritional substances, as well as with the use of organic fertilizers, when available (Sahs and Legoing, 1985). Other practices that may reduce the use of fertilizers include soil analyses to define the precise fertilization needs of different cultivations, as well as the application of fertilizer in crop rows, in order to achieve the maximum effectiveness in cultivation and avoid weed development. Finally, organic substances, coming from urban or industrial sources, may be used as alternative forms of fertilization.

Pesticides Usage Control

• Pesticides are usually used based on the usage instructions of the production companies, thus, leading to economically incorrect and/or unnecessary applications at times. The pesticide quantities used may be reduced if a series of alternative techniques such as the following, is applied:

•  Precise targeting

•  Usage of cultivated varieties with resistance in insects

•  Intervention with cultivations’ techniques

•  Timely cultivation seeding

•  Epidemic prediction

•  Biological and mechanical epidemic control

•  Use of biological pesticides based on pathogenic insects

•  Use of nematodes attacking the insects

•  Use of pheromones and repulsive substances

•  Release of parasites and predatory insects

•  Release of sterile male insects where appropriate

•  Encouragement of natural hunters by biodiversity conservation, through the use of plant-traps

•  Use of more cultivations during the crops rotation method

•  Innovative cultivation practices like intercrop and strip intercrop, thus increasing biodiversity and supporting natural control.

• The usage of fungicides can be reduced by:

•  Prediction of diseases

•  Use of crops rotation method

•  Timely seeding

•  Use of antagonistic insects

•  Use of varieties resistant to fungs

The application of pesticides may be replaced by:

•  Mechanical control of weeds

•  Use of the crops rotation method

•  Strip intercrop

•  Use of plastic covering

•  Use of fungicides and weedcides

•  Use of insects and pathogens in weeds

Soil Treatment

Traditionally, land in developing countries was cultivated yearly in a depth of 7,5-30cm, resulting to high-energy consumption, especially in heavy and compressed soil. During the last thirty years, there is an increased tendency for reduction in soil treatment, with a corresponding reduction of energy inflows.

The techniques used for the reduction of the treatment level include:

•  Slight tillage

•  Cultivatr use

•  Fallow

All these practices improve soil formation, increasing water restrain and reducing the risks of land loss from erosion.

Crops Rotation Systems

This technique was the general guideline against monoculture or cultivation with only two rotations of different crop per year. The selection of the proper crop rotation supplies with nutritional substances and reduce drastically parasites attacks and diseases, thus, breaking the continuance of the activity of the organisms from crop to crop. 

Use of Innovative Cultivation Techniques

The necessity for the replacement of chemical inflows in cultivation systems leads to practices like:

• Removal of break crops or catch crops
• Cultivation techniques inside the lines

• Intercrop with legumes or other crop types

• Use of different or mixed types
• Use of plants-traps
• Strip crop for weeds control

6.3.2 Integrated Farming Systems

Fully developed agriculture includes a series of principles and procedures that have to be applied, taking into consideration the specific circumstances of the country property and its environment (British Agrochemicals Association 1996). Examples of such procedures are, according to certain researchers:

• Crop rotation, in order to improve the soil structure and reduce the need for use of agrochemicals. A minimum of four different crops is suggested during fallow,
• Minimization of cultivation of soil and the use of mechanical means and the control of pesticides,
• Soil management systems that favor the natural control of enemies, improve the soil structure and reduce the needs for nitrogen input,
• Use of varieties with limited needs of inputs and high resistance to diseases,
• Changes in the frequencies of various crop types in order to increase the variety of cultivated plants,
• Changes in seeding seasons aiming at the reduction of insect and other attacks,
• Focused adaptation of nutritional elements for the reduction of the cost of manuring and the avoidance of environmental pollution,
• Rational and ideal use of pesticides, eg avoidance of protective sprays through observation of crops and use of measures for the definition of the optimal application period,
• Promotion of biodiversity (it is suggested that 3-5% of the total cultivated land to be covered by non-cultivated vegetation) and management of land borders, for the creation of biotopes for useful vultures.

In general, it has been considered that Integral Agriculture is not differentiated from the biological agriculture in procedures and cultivation techniques, but rather in the means it applies. It represents a frame of production procedures that attempts to place the same emphasis on the environment as to agricultural incomes (Morris et al 2001).

6.3.3  Organic/Biological Agriculture - Livestock

Biological Agriculture is a system of agricultural methods depending on low external inputs replacing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, with an environment rich in biodiversity and high biological activity (IFOAM, 1986). This is based on the idea that an agrarian piece of land is an organism, of which all contributing parts –the nutrients elements of soil, organic substances, microorganisms, insects, plants, animals and humans- interact to create a cohesive system» (Lampkin, 1994 according to Morris et al., 2001). The basic goals of organic agriculture as set by IFOAM are:

• The protection soil fertility
• Avoidance of any form of environmental pollution
• Production of high nutritional value products, in adequate quantity
• Reduction of the use of energy from non renewable resources (petrol, carbon) in agricultural production to the minimum possible level
• Provision of good living conditions based on moral values to breeding animals
• Proper operation of the biological cycles in the agroecosystem, with up-to-date participation of microorganisms, land fauna and flora
• Securing agricultural products of sufficient income to the producers
• Protection of genetic diversity in agroecosystem and the surrounding area

The main methods and guidelines of biological agriculture are:

Improvement of soil fertility

Biological agricultural methods are aiming at preparing the land for cultivation, through replacingchemical fertilizers and pesticides, in order to encourage the development of all the forms of life that have disappeared or drastically reduced as a result of their use. In every square meter of healthy soil, one may find under normal circumstances billions of bacteria, soil-borne fungi and protozoa, tens of thousands of acarea and a few hundreds of beetles, myriapoda, ants, spiders and worms. All these forms of life are very important for soil function, transforming the organic substances into components available for palnts.

The life of the soil is divided into microflora and fauna (Papamihos, 1985). Microflora consists of: (1) bacteria, (2) actinomyces, (3) soil-borne fungi and (4) algae.

Bacteria are small unicellular soil organisms that increase and multiply fast where food is available (organic substance) and climate conditions are favorable. In each gram of fertile soil live millions of bacteria. The weight of living bacteria per hectare might exceed 200 Kgr! Some bacteria (Rhizobium sp.) can live together with legumes binding the atmospheric nitrogen.

Actinomyces are unicellular organisms as well, that decompose organic matter; they do not increase as fast as the bacteria. They produce antibiotic substances, which are poisons for other organisms.

Soil-borne fungi include a huge spectrum of organisms, from unicellular to common mushrooms. They receive energy and food by decomposing organic matter.

Algae live in water. However, some of these, living together with soil-borne fungi, such as the so-called lichen, are located in rocks or tree boles and branches. They are considered as one of the most important causes of rock weathering (because of the organic acids that produce), therefore they are considered as factors of soil genesis. They are self-feeding organisms, meaning that they contain chlorophyll and photosynthesize like other plants.

Soil fauna consists of protozoon, acari, spiders, ants, worms and insects. The arthropoda (acari, spiders and ants), together with the worms, are probably the most important soil vital organisms. Worms, in particular are considered to be true soil benefactors, while their existence is a proof of soil health. Their beneficial role lies in the fact that they chew mainly dead leaves, which they pass from their peptic system in big quantities of soil, that may reach 30 to 50 tones per hectare in a year (Ntafis, 1986). This slightly divided natural substance is vulnerable to other soil organisms, which they try to humute. This action of the worms results in a soil formation change, turning it to grainy with an increased porosity, improving the airing and filtering ability for water absorption. All of the above qualities are important for soil productivity. In cold and dry environments, worms live in deeper soil layers, whereas, when the weather is warm and humid, they climb to higher layers.

Soil fauna contribution consists in the decomposition of organic matter and humus formation. This is only rarely because some animals cut the organic material into small pieces, on occasion because they transform them when they pass from their peptic system, and on other occasions because they mix them with mineral soil.

Finally, the impact of bigger animals (moles, rats) in soil consists in opening channels. Through this activity material from deeper soil layers is transferred to the surface, whilst surface material arrives through water at the back of the channels.

All these organisms must have space and air to survive. Consequently, all cultivation techniques and machinery that destroy the morphology of the land are not recommended. Deep tillage is also not recommended. Generally, some efforts are being made to promote less possible cultivation (tillage, milling, harrowing etc).

The effort for the creation of a healthy and “vivid” soil is may be the most important factor in relation to biological cultivations and it consist the cornerstone for their success.

Machine Use Control

The major negative implication from the use of machines is soil compression and the destruction of the pores. As a consequence soil airing, water circulation and roots development and respiration are limited.

For eliminating these implications the following are suggested:

• Use less heavy machinery, with the efficacy requested for each task, thus avoiding soil compression.
• Follow the minimum tillage practice, aiming at combining different tasks e.g. tillage with seeding. Do not apply tillage practices whenever possible.
• Choose the proper time period paying attention to soil humidity. If the soil is very humid, big and hard lumps - difficult to break - will be created by tillage. On the contrary, if the soil is dry, it is difficult or impossible to be plowed and any activity destroys its morphology.

Fertilizers Use Control

The use of mineral fertilizers can be replaced by the application of the crop rotation method (the advantages of this method are mentioned further down), especially in legumes as a source of nitrogen and other nutritional substances (Sahs and Legoing, 1985).

The use of compost (meaning “composition” from the latin word “compositum”), results in the fertilization and morphological improvement of the soil (namely porous, water permeability, water capacity etc). When different materials incorporated in compost, the nutritional ingredients at the final product while be better and more complete. Compost consists of natural material (natural cultivation remains, leaves, peels, sawdust, kitchen and waste from agricultural industries), animal manure, seaweeds (without salt) and inactive material (beonite, kaolinite, ashes and limestone). These materials are stratificated, keeping the relevant humidity high and are left to decompose by the microorganisms. The end product arises between 6 months till 2 or 3 years period and can be used in place of chemical fertilizers because it includes high concentration of nutritional substances.

Green manure (during which natural substance is cut and left on the ground) is also essential in biological cultivations. Its advantages (Alkimos, 1990) are:

•  Soil enrichment with nutritional ingredients

•  Avoidance of watery and Aeolian erosion

•  Weeds opposition due to soil cladding

•  Humus production

•  

• Weeds Control

• Weeds opposition can be achieved through:

•  Cultivation measures like seeding time regulation and planting density

•  Weeding out method; very tiring though

•  Mechanical means use (hoes, mattocks, milling machine, grass cutters)

•  Mulching with natural remains of different types (dry grass, straw, sawdust). Mulching can result in weed opposition, rise in temperature and humidity maintenance, without any consequence. At the same time, gradual humus processing of the material has a positive impact in improving soil formation. Mulching can be applied in arborization as well as in horticulture and in the case of small fruits, like strawberry cultivations.

•  The use of superior plants as weeds rivals. Mulching plants such as clover, in combination with perennial or linear cultivations may eliminate through shading and prevention, the development of weeds. Legumes and cereals are mainly used in areas with adequate soil humidity. A      part from weed control, erosion elimination is an important asset. However, in areas where the available soil humidity consists a restrictive factor, special attention must be given to the competition with the plants of basic cultivation.

•  Covering the land between cultivated plants with a piece of black plastic, destroying the weeds below due to lack of light, limited airing and high temperature, while maintaining soil humidity at high levels.

•  Organizing crops rotation method in a way that the vulnerable to weeds cultivation be followed by a rival to them, so that the soil remains clean.  

•  Natural management (e.g. fire, smoke). This method is not commonly used due to the risk of fire (mainly in Mediterranean south European ecosystems). Nevertheless, special burners like flame throwers, ensure effective weeds destruction, mainly in linear cultivations like corn and cotton as well as in arborization.

•  Biological Management that can be introduced in an area where a weed problem appears with one or more organisms considered natural rivals of this weed. Through this method weeds from fungi, insects and fish have been controlled.

•  Biological control may be achieved through the introduction of animals (cows, goats, sheeps, poultry) in a farming ecosystem; where they destroy the weeds mainly in tree cultivations (with simultaneous fertilization with manure) by grazing. Furthermore, introduction of fish like cyprinous is used for managing hydrophile or hydric weeds in channels etc (Paspatis, 1986).

Insects Control  

For insects’ management the following techniques are recommended (Mpoultadakis, 1988; Mpourmos, 1988; Panayos, 1986):

•  Selection of a healthy multiplying material (seeds, transplants, small trees), not attacked by viruses, fungi and varieties of annually plants and trees, measuring their resistance in diseases. It is stressed that biological agriculture does not accept plants resulting from genetic modification, even if they are resistant in a particular weed or disease. This stand is a demonstration against interventions in the DNA. Furthermore, current varieties, especially the traditional ones and their biological cultivations, give the answer to the production issue as well as to plant protection.

•  Pheromone traps. This substance is produced by females to attract the males before mating. It is used successfully for dipterous or dipteran opposition.

•  Release sterile male insects. Their sterilization is achieved by γ or X irradiate. These individuals mate, but egg-laying is sterile thus the population is decreasing. This method applies to conventional agriculture.

•  Selective natural insecticides uses, (do not harm useful insects), like nicotine, potenone, pyrethrum etc.

•  Biological insects’ control through “controllers” like e.g. insects parasitizing in eggs, mainly harmful for insect growth thus decreasing their population.

• General utilization of hormonal functions e.g. the hormone that discourages the female from laying the egg very close to an egg laid by another female. Furthermore, the alarm pheromone, produced by an injured individual (aphid), causes alarm to the individuals of the same type leading them to abandon the plants they lived on. Locusts’ pheromone attracts individuals and maintains swarm cohesion. Finally, other hormones repulse some herbivore insects. It is obvious that this kind of synthetic hormones may be used so as to trap, mislead, create sexual confusion and repulse various insects. The aforementioned methods are commonly used in conventional agriculture as well.
• Natural extracts use e.g. nettle extract, eucalyptus oil essence, camphor, mint, peppermint, lavender, rosemary, thyme – essence from seaweed, fern, garlic, onion, carrot, tomato, chrysanthemum (including pyrethrum which is natural insecticide), that organic farmers commonly use, either as plants’ support or as pesticides. Also, for the same purpose, preparations from manure, whey (material remaining in the milk when fat is removed), propolis (insulating material, made by the bees in their hives), eggshells, minerals like beonite and kaolinite and ash.

• Direct management preparations. Sulfur, cooper sulfate, rotenone, soluble substances, consisting of silicon and potassium or sodium, potassium permanganate, alum, soap and alcohol (Panayos, 1986).

• Avoiding natural fences or farm scaping breaking from plants or stones and of isolated trees that constitute a habitat or a reproduction place for birds, reptiles and insects useful in cultivations. Natural fences also consist an obstacle to watery and Aeolian erosion. In biological cultivation, the creation of such fences is required.  

• Intercropping techniques of two or more plants through which either one protect the other from the insects by take them off or the second cultivation attracts insects removing them from the main cultivation. Examples of intercrops are the tomato and marigold system, where marigold’s roots take off the nematodes and its flowers attract the bees so that bees pollinate tomato’s flowers as well. Furthermore, garlic protects other plants from aphid, ants and downy mildew, lavender protects beans from aphid etc.
• Cultivation measures. Some management measures are: (1) avoid excessive use of nitrogen for fertilization even if it comes from manure or other sources permissible by biological agriculture regulation, (2) avoid excessive irrigation, (3) avoid permanent humidity through proper filtering measures, (4) soft and proper for every cultivation lopping, (5) seeding and harvesting regulation, (6) change seeding density, and (6) ruin cultivation remains by field cultivation or fire. 

Crops Rotation Application

The term “crops rotation” means the systematic and programmed circular crops rotation in the same field. It is applied in annual cultivations. The cultivated varieties are rotated through specific crop rotation programs, depending on their demands in nutritional ingredients, organic matter and nitrogen that they leave in soil after harvesting (provided they are pulses), the formation of their roots system, the cultivation work they require and of course the income they bring in.

According to Livernash, (1992) this is a method with the following advantages:

• Soil morphology is improved through the different cultivation methods and different roots systems of the plants rotated. Furthermore, some plants with a deep root system (medic) bring to surface nutritional ingredients that are absorbed by the plants that follow with the less deep roots system.
• Soil content in nitrogen increases during crops rotation method with legumes (beans, soy, vetch), which through roots symbiotic bacteria retain atmospheric nitrogen.
• Diseases, insects and weeds are eliminated, if for some years cultivations vulnerable to these are avoided.
• The classical example of traditional cultivations based on crop rotation method is the three-year rotation of barley, legumes and horticulture varieties. During the first year, barley was ridding the soil of nematodes; during the second year, legumes with a deep root system were enriching the soil with nitrogen. While during the third year, more demanding but vulnerable gardening or horticultural were benefited and developed, whilst development of nematodes could not settle there due to the presence of barley (inactivating them) during seeding for the next year.

Wind-breaks

Wind-breaks from bushes or trees are protecting cultivations from strong winds, thus obstructing soil wind erosion in leeward places. They change the microclimate by increasing the temperature and reducing humid evaporation, thus increasing yields and protecting animals, which are grazing. Furthermore, they protect small animals, animalcules and microorganisms essential for the ecological balance of the fields. Windbreak from bushes and trees (5 meter high), creates a lee place of 100 meters behind it (Alkimos 1989).

Comparison of conventional and biological agriculture, with respect to the basic ecological dimensions and the cultivation practices followed:

In the past, the terms “ecological” and “organic” agriculture were considered trends of equal validity with some differences (Gold, 1999; Siardos and Koutsouris, 2002). However, legislation on biological agriculture minimum models from the EU, Regulation 2092/91 (for more than a decade, till its recent validation from USDA-NOP in the USA, comprised a global reference basis for the relevant models, mainly for commercial reasons) equated its terms, so, now they are considered identical. In any event, there is a significant variety in agricultural systems used under the framework of biological agriculture (Morris et al., 2001), which are expressed with the enactment of more “strict” (from 2092/91 or USDA-NOP) models from national or private institutions or producers’ associations (e.g. biodynamic agriculture is placed normative and commercially in biological agriculture as well).

Biological Livestock

Biological livestock is a system based on

•  Animals’ natural living conditions

•  Uses forage produced in biological ways

•  Eliminates the use of synthetic allopathetic drugs

•  It is against genetic modification

•  Protects the environment

•  Produces healthy products

Biological livestock is not limited in simple replacement of conventional inflows, with inflows allowed under Reg. EEC 1804/99, that complements regulation (EEC) 2092/91, nor in the production of goods with the absence of plants’ protection substances remains, antibiotics etc, but demands an overall treatment of the livestock animals, in a way that secures:

•  Their health and natural development

•  Improvement of living conditions

•  Environment protection

•  Biodiversity conservation of the agricultural ecosystems and landscape

•  Sustainable use of land resources

•  Creation of stable biological livestock zones, through small-scale economies

Within the framework of these agricultural activities, livestock breeding constitutes the completion of a natural cycle, with biological agriculture as a starting point and the use and consumption of biological products as a terminal, without any negative impact on the environmental balance.

Biological livestock respects animals’ natural way of living as well as their needs. Each animal lives by following its normal rates, living in homelike places, extended pasturelands, and spacious, well-aired stables. Thus, no modification is required in their special habits, speeding and increasing production at their expense.

Animals’ breeding is qualitative, since biological natural forage like barley, corn, soy and hay is used. Biological breeding aims at their proper development by natural methods and according to animals’ biological rates, protecting them from pathology, upset, tension and abnormal speeding of their development. In case of diseases, homeopathic or herbal made medicines are provided, always after communication with specialized veterinarians.

This treatment and respect towards animals resulting the production of meat with unique characteristics in taste, texture, cohesion and absence of unnecessary fat.

EU subsidies for biological livestock practice concern the following types of animals:

Sheep and goat production

Ewes and goats with priority to a pastoral way of breeding, either mobile or immobile and in domestic and/or semi-domestic sheep and goat production, with the exception of fully stabled animals.

Cow production

Meat production cows – (nursing), calves, milk production cows.

Pig production

6.3.4 Reduced Land Cultivation Systems

These systems aim at reducing the degradation of soils through the use of several practices that reduce transformation of soil composition and structure as well as the consequences it has on biodiversity to a minimum the (FAO, 2003). Generally, reduced land cultivation systems include all practices that reduce, or minimize land cultivation and uses vegetative biomass so that it is sustained on soil surface throughout the year (FAO, 2003). The definition given by FAO for these systems includes necessarily: non-cultivation of soil, immediate seeding, preservation of soil cover crop, or cultivation remains without integration and finally fallow. This definition, however, is considered as limited in relevance with a plethora of existing technical termί (FAO, 2003). Various names have been given such as: Non-Cultivation of soil (No-till), Surface Cultivation with plant remainders (Mulch-till), Striped Cultivation (Strip-till), Minimum Tillage, Zone Tillage, Ridge-till, Reduced-till, Rotational Tillage και Crop Residue Management (Gold, 1999). Those cultivation systems, that are widely used, especially in North and South America, regard mainly, but not exclusively, ploughing cultivations and are usually accompanied by an extensive use of pesticides to fight weeds, while at the same time for this particular reason limited mechanical cultivations- like cover crop with plants between harvest and seeding of main crop – are being used (Gold, 2003).

7 New Technologies in Agriculture-Genetic Engineering

7.1     Genetic Engineering and Conventional Plant Cultivation

One of the biggest changes in the history of world agriculture came about with the use of hybrids. The term “hybrid” means the population that comes about with the cross-cultivation of plant parents of the same or related species (Kaltsikis, 1989). Their use has led to increase in production, at the same time however, it increased the cultivation’s demands for inflows (fertilizers, pesticides, mechanical cultivation). Their basic characteristic is, that in order to produce hybrid seeds, certain procedures are followed that only specialized scientists can carry through. Moreover if the seeds are re-used, they produce limited production continuously. Therefore, farmers are required to buy seeds every year. The classic methodology of plant breeding is based on natural rules, developing new species of plants by the selection process, aiming at achieving the same expression of genetic material that is already present in species, using procedures that already exist in nature. Products of plant breeding show some characteristics of species that are not new, but have existed for centuries in the genetic potentional of the species.

The next big change in world agriculture is the one we experience today, that is, the application of genetic engineering. According to Kaltsikis (1989) «Genetic Engineering is the targeted use of organisms for the production of specific types, for mankind’s benefit». In the case of genetic modification the gene is isolated and embodied, by specific procedures, not only within the species but also within various realms e.g. from bacterium or insect to plant (Tsavtaris, 1997). Based on the facts mentioned above, it becomes clear that the terms «mutation» and «genetic modification» should not be confused.

7.1.1 Genetic Modification

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is a live organism, vegetative or animal that has undergone a modification of its original genetic characteristics through the addition, subtraction or replacement of at least one gene. The creation of genetically transformed organisms is possible due to the fact that the genes of all organisms are made of the same substance, DNA (NAGREF (National Agricultural Research Foundation), 2001).

The applications of these contemporary techniques for genetic transformation led to the creation of new types of food, the “novel foods”. Certain categories of these foods as well as of applications of biotechnology in the primary and manifucturing sector are:

1. Foods that are themselves products of genetic modification

2. Foods that come from organisms that consume genetically transformed organisms

3. Foods in the production of which microbe enzymes or proteins are the result of the genetic mechanics

4. Foods that contain additives for improving their characteristics and their nutritional value (NAGREF, 2001).

7.1.2  Examples of Genetic Modification of Plants

The most important uses of GMPs aim at the production of new genotypes with improved agronomic features for the expansion of possibilities of the classical genetic improvement for the production of new species with the use of «exotic» genetic material and the speeding up of procedures of conventional plant breeding. Examples of genetic transformation can be spotted in the following sectors:

 Industry

• Detergents, plastic, etc that use petroleum as a basic substance. Since we are running out of resources, research turned to biopolymer that are completely biodegradable

• In weaving, colored cotton will be produced, so as to restrict the use of paints

Foods

• Genetically modified fruit and vegetables that can be stored for a longer period of time, thus facilitating their storage and transportation to their place of consumption

• Products of improved quality, so that their manifucturing is easier and free of chemical interferences.

Medicine

• Production of abundant human insulin from bacteria, while until recently insulin deriving from pigs was used; that was different from the human kind and in sufficient

• Production of human development hormones from bacteria for the treatment of nanism.

Environment

• Microorganisms for water and soil purfication, for the extermination of oil slicks, for refining wastes for nitrogen binding, biological cleaning etc.

Agriculture

• Corn varieties, potato, cotton, rice, tobacco and other plants that ensure resistance to pesticides, diseases and germs.

• Production of modified plants with better resistance to environmental problems such as freezing, drought, salt content etc.

Farming

• Increase in the productivity of animal breeds. For example increase in the production of beef somatotropine (BST), which is responsible for the production of cow milk.

• Production of vaccines for the protection of animals from various diseases.

Agricultural economy

• Foods with high content in vitamins, or protein and lower in fat, that facilitate the choice to a healthier diet.

•  Varieties of plants for the restructuring of polluted soil (NAFREF, 2001).

7.2     Consequences in Human Health

In the current situation there are no products of genetic modification that are used in agriculture and have immediate positive effects on human health. Genetic Enineering promises products with increased quantities in vitamins like Α, Β and Ε, oils with fewer saturated fat, as well as the removal of harmful substances, like toxins and allergy causing substances (Uzogara, 2000).

In trying to categorize some possible negative consequences that GMOs cause on human health, among the most important ones are the introduction of allergens and the creation of toxins, as well as the possible increase of resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics.

Danger factors regarding the use and creation of allergens and toxins

7.2.1  Allergies

As far as allergies are concerned, they occur in 1-2% of the adult population and in 6-8% of the underage population while 90% of them are caused by peanut, soy, walnuts, milk, eggs, fish, wheat and mussels (Κaeppler, 2000). It is extremely difficult to detect the consumption of an allergy causing substance that has genetically entered an organism. For example, soy in which genes from a brazil nut had been injected, caused a plethora of allergic shocks to people allergic to nuts who were of course unaware of what they were in fact consuming. This was revealed after the introduction of GM extract to the allergic peoples’ blood.

7.2.2  Toxins

The behavior of genes injected to an organism can be unpredictable. Toxins can be produced, as it happened in the US in 1989 through a modified dietary supplement that caused death to 37 people and various forms of handicaps to 1500 others.

Toxins are present in most cultivated plants, in particularly low levels, however, so that no health problems are caused, while in some other species, like the potato, might be present in high concentrations.

The use of chemical analyses for the detection of toxins is under severe criticism, since data are very limited so as to allow us to come to conclusions regarding the biochemical and toxical consequences of a food product.

The paradox here, is that even though GM products are regarded so “new” as to be accepted as “innovative” with the companies having mental copy rights on them, safety criteria are set according to traditional products. Apparently this choice is made so as to skip time consuming log-term processes and controls (lasting at least five years). Furthermore their marking is not imperative.

7.2.3  Resistance Development to Antibiotics

Many of the GMOs cultivated on a commercial scale include genes resistant to antibiotics that are used for curing diseases that affect both humans and animals. Those genes are likely to reduce resistance in human organisms to diseases and can make health-damaging bacteria to become stronger. Examples of those are, GM corn of Novartis Company and the GM olive oil of the company Plant Genetic Systems that include genes resistant to a vast variety of antibiotics like ampicyllin, canamycinn and neomycinn. According to the British Medical Institution «the use of genes with high resistance to antibiotics should be banned, since the increase in resistance to antibiotics is one of the biggest threats that human health will be faced with in the 21^st century» (BMA, 1999).

7.2.4  Use of GM Plants for Pharmaceutical Reasons

The use of GM plants for pharmaceutical reasons, especially for vaccines, is beyond the limits of agriculture, so there will not be an extensive reference to that. It is, however, worth noting that for this specific reason plants like rice and corn, that are also included in human nutrition, are used. This fact creates the danger of infection. A more safe approach would include plants that are not consumed by humans, so as to reduce the risks in human health (Ecologist, 2003).

7.3     Consequences in Agriculture and the Environment

The tasks of genetic modification, as far as agriculture is concerned, are mostly about the improvement of agronomic and quality characteristics of plants. Such agronomic characteristics are the development of resistance to pesticides, the resistance to insects, viruses, fungus, bacteria, as well as the resistance to drought, and to the high concentration of salt in the soil (Engel, 2002).

7.3.1  Consequences from the Use of GM Plants with High Resistance to Pesticides

GM plants with resistance to pesticides are highly spread. In 2002 their percentage rose to 75% of the total of GM plants worldwide (ISAAA, 2003). Their extensive acceptance is due to two main reasons:

1.   The ability for fighting most insects using a simpler program of pesticides, so that the use of more complex pesticides is not necessary

2.   They are more flexible as far as the application time frame is concerned, taking that the resistance of the cultivation to the weedcide is independent from its stage of growth.

All the reasons mentioned above are very important because farmers save man-hours and can make profit if the system is more economical.

Apart from all that, the use of GMOs resistant to pesticides has hazards effects such as:

1. There is an increase in pesticide use, like in the case of soy resistant in Glyphosate, where research showed larger consumption of pesticides, in comparison to conventional soy cultivations (Benbrook, 2001).

2. There is a prevalence of more resistant weeds as a result of the repeated use of specific weed killers in large cultivated areas. (Yiannopolitis, 1999).

3. Effects to non-targeted organisms, or those that are useful for the cultivation. For example, nitrogen binding in GM soy with glyphosate resistance is highly affected, given that soy nitrogen bacterium, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, is especially sensitive to the weed killers.

4. The introduction of genes from other organisms can have adverse effects in the normal functions of the plant (Benbrook, 2001), for example, a reduction in productivity. In a Nebraska University research for the years 1998-1999, there was initially a comparison between 13 varieties of GM soy, resistant to glyphosate. In the first case glyphosate resistant weed killers were used, while in the second case other types of weed killers were used. The results were more or less the same. Consequently, a comparison between the 5 most productive varieties was made. Results indicated that the production of conventional varieties was increased by 6% (IANR, 2000).

5. Transfer to related species was achieved by area pollen, cultivated or wild.

An additional problem from growing GM plants is the continuation of the marginalization and extinction of traditional varieties, with important consequences to the whole genetic diversity of the planet.

7.3.2  Consequences from the Use of GM Plants with Resistance to Insects

GM plants that are resistant to insects are the most widespread ones, while those with resistance to pesticides follow. In 2002, their percentage reached 17% of the total of GM worldwide, while including those with embodied resistance to insects and weed killers they reach almost 25% (ISAAA, 2003).

Their resistance is based on the fact that they nullify the need for spraying against the specific insect. Their use is mostly important in areas that are affected by a specific insect every year, and therefore require a large number of sprayings.

The following hazards are among the greatest:

1. Developing resistance towards insects, due to use of GM plants in an area, for a long period of time, so that GMs lose their effectiveness. Some of the GM plants’ special characteristics increase the chances of that happening:

▪               GM plants with the Thuriggia’s bacillus embodied constantly produce D-endoxin, with the result that only insects with the highest resistance survive and only their offspring have increased chances of survival. Contrary to that, biologically produced Thuriggia’s bacilli are only used when necessary and for specific time frames.

▪               GM plants with Thuriggia’s bacillus exercise an insect-killing action, by the use of a single endoxin, resulting in the development of resistance in insects (McGaughey and Whalon, 1992).

▪               It has also been observed that with the ageing process the ability of GM plants to produce endoxin is reduced. Therefore, more insects survive during that period and if they are not fought off in another way, they will eventually lead to the creation of resistant populations (Yiannopolitis, 1999).

From the above it becomes obvious, that if insects develop resistance, then the effectiveness of today’s biological pesticides is lost (Yiannopolitis, 1999). Something like that would have major consequences for organic farmers, who depend heavily on these sorts of mixtures to stem off insect attacks.

2. As in the case of GM plants with resistance to weed killers, consequences to non-target organisms can be observed. The most well-known example among those is that of the Monarchus butterfly, Danaus plexippus, of North America. Two cases of experiments have shown the effect of pollen from genetically modified corn on Monarchus butterflies (Hansen and Obrycki, 1999).

Another danger for non-target organisms is the extract of end toxins from GM plants, with insect resistance. This has been proven in the case of GM corn, where D-end toxin is removed from the plant’s root to the rhizosphere that remains active for at least 234 days, until it is absorbed by the soil.

3. The embodiment of genes from other organisms in the plant’s DNA, can under certain circumstances lead to the non-expression of the resistance gene. A similar case was observed in 1996, when the cultivation of GM cotton failed to constrain the pink worm populations in approximately 80.000 acres in Texas.

4. An important additional danger is the transference of resistant genes to related species in the area, either cultivated or wild.

7.3.3  Use of GM in Other Agronomic and Quality Features

Α. Resistance to viruses. It is achieved with the introduction of parts of the genetic material from the viruses themselves. Resistance to viruses makes the plants less vulnerable to viruses, resulting to increased production.

In this specific case there is a danger of missing the virus and insect resistant gene, in this way making them harder to extinguish, this can also create new viruses.

Β. GM use in other agronomic characteristics, such as resistance to fungi and bacteria resistance to drought and saltiness (Engel, 2002).

C. Improvement of quality and quantity characteristics of nutritional value. This is achieved through the modification of quality and quantity characteristics such as e.g. constitution of proteins, oils, vitamins or other microelements that aim at improving the nutritional value of foods and can contribute to the quality improvement of nutrition and its sustainability.

The above genetically modified plants, excluding those with virus resistance, have hardly been used in agricultural practice so far. Possible dangers, like the cases mentioned above can include the non-expression of a desired gene, the transference of pollen to related species, effects on non-targeted organisms and restriction in the use of indigenous varieties.

7.3.4  The Irreversible Consequences of GMO Use

The most important issue during the selection of the GMO use in agriculture is that it is a choice that cannot be reversed. In relation to other technologies like mobile phone use, the difference is that in this case we are dealing with live organisms. The transferred genes can also remain in the environment.

This spread can hardly be controlled by human societies, in the event that it is subsequently observed that these are harmful for human health, or the biodiversity and agriculture. The above mentioned dangers are difficult to analyze on a single level.

7.3.5  GM Plants as “Parasites” and “Invaders”

In order to better comprehend the term parasite as it is used in agricultural practices, it means any plant that at any given time it is not useful for the cultivator. The term “invaders” will be used describing GM plant transfers to more distant ecosystems, given that refer to new organisms that did not pre-exist.

These also have certain characteristics such as:

1. They remain in the ecosystems for a long period of time

2. The initiation of blooming period

3. Pollen transfer by the wind

4. Production of seed on a large scale and on large extensions of land

5. The ability of re-growth of old plants

6. Old plants are made fragile by the soil and are difficult to uproot

7. Special mechanisms, like the rosettes, thick leafage and production of toxic substances (Baker, 1974)

The effect of invaders on ecosystems can be especially important. An example can be a plant that was imported from Australia, a type of poplar (Populus spp.) to Florida. Within 30 years it spread to 1.800.000 acres. It is a highly resistant species when it comes to droughts, floods, fire and high saltiness and it reproduces fast. GM plants used today bear some of the aforementioned characteristics.

7.4     Coexistence of Genetically Modified Cultivations with Conventional and Organic Cultivations

The coexistence of genetically modified cultivations with conventional and organic cultivations has an impact on the agricultural production as a whole. The possibility of biological pollution from the above is very high. Farmers should be able to choose the type of agricultural production they wish, but the question remains whether this is feasible or not and at what cost.

7.4.1  Consequences Resulting from the Coexistence of Genetically Modified and Non GM Cultivations

The following are regarded as the main sources of pollution among cultivations::

• The transference of pollen from neighboring cultivations

• The spreading of seeds during the cultivation season or during storage

•  The remaining of seeds in the soil

• The existence of foreign mixtures (2003/556/ΕΚ)

Currently there are very few articles on experiments carried out.

Two major issues regarding the matter of coexistence of genetically modified cultivations with conventional and organic cultivations, is that if finally the separation is eligible, who is going to pay the cost of this “coexistence”. The answer of the European Commission was initially that, farmers who want to be protected, e.g. the conventional and organic farmers, will carry the cost for that. The answer of the European Agricultural Unions is that they are against any transference of ethical, environmental and economic responsibility for the GMO’s presence, to the farmers and state budgets and they regard it to be the responsibility of the GMO producing companies (Bisti, 2003).

Therefore, the right of certain farmers and some citizens who wished to choose a zero-sum presence of the GMO in cultivations and products have certainly not been fulfilled after the larger expansion of the GMO’s in the environment.