A.      Primary Considerations

Your animal handling and treatment strategies will clearly be dictated by the mix of livestock and working animals on your farm, and your immediate environment (are you on a hill farm or in a valley? for example).  They will also be heavily influenced by your choice of farming approach (are you “free range” or “intensively” farming your stock? Do you use organic “production methods” etc.).  In the other Course Modules in Youth Farm we have given you information which will enable you to make these choices.  Having made them, you need to determine how to manage the animals on your farm. 

You also need to bear in mind that EU legislation, embodied in the national laws and regulations of its Member States requires that farm animals are kept free from disease and infestations.  Failure to do so can lead to prosecution.  But in truth, diseases and infestations significantly affect the quality and saleability of animal products, and some can even cause serious illnesses in humans too.  So the majority of farmers need little incentive to keep their animals healthy.

When animals are being raised for food, it is clear that there must be restrictions on the chemicals and medicines used to ensure their well- being and to control their pests.  Within the European Union there is a move towards the licensing of approved medicines for both human and animal use.  However, it has to be recognised that there are unlicensed products available and that sometimes farmers can have their own treatments often based on the principles of the so called “alternative medicines”.  Looking at the wide range of information available on these factors it is not possible to make general recommendations.  There are a number of accepted facts concerning the certification of animal medicines and treatments:

·         The farmer, the veterinary surgeon, the medicine industry, and hence the regulatory authorities are faced with many different patient species, each with its own metabolism and sensitivities, even to common human treatments.  For example cats are particularly sensitive to aspirin, and paracetamol is said to be fatal to badgers, even at relatively low doses.  For registered medicines, separate clinical trials are therefore carried out for every animal species for which they are used.

·         But this is complicated further, because farm workers, can potentially handle large quantities of these medicines, particularly if incorporating the medicine into feed in a mill or treating a whole farm flock or herd with preventive medicines or vaccines  So their safety is also considered in the certification process.

·         Environmental safety is the latest focus, not only for farm animal treatments.  Every product submitted for Market Authorisation must undergo an "environmental impact assessment".  This is causing some tensions within the industry because whilst everyone accepts the need for scrutiny of large volume products used on farms (such as sheep dips or wormers) the need for an environmental impact assessment on a cat flea collar (also covered by the regulations as they are currently written) seems to be totally counterproductive.

·         "Consumer" protection is also an important factor to be considered before granting a Market Authorisation, especially when the animal products are to be eaten.  Under EU law a "maximum residue level" (MRL) must be set for each "pharmacologically active" substance included in a medicine for a food-producing animal, also a Withdrawal Period (WP) must be set for every product and species.  It is illegal to treat a food animal with a medicine that does not have a defined MRL or WP.  But the EU law focuses on the target species, not the treated individual.  This creates a conflict because animals bred for sport or as pets such as: racehorses, rabbits or Vietnamese pot bellied pigs must all be treated with medicines having an MRL even though they will not be eaten.

From the above we can agree that, in many ways, animal medicines are even more heavily regulated than human medicines.  And sadly, it has been an inevitable, if unintended, consequence of this heavy and costly regulation that the number and range of authorised products has been eroded whilst the avoidance and evasion of regulations appears to have increased.

But it is permissible for a vet to use unlicensed medicines for the treatment of animals (even those being raised for food), especially if the farmer and vet are responding to outbreaks of new or unrecognized conditions.  This is known as the "Cascade".  Some see it as a crucial safety valve, others as a dangerous loophole in the regulations.  Whilst the EU legislation (and that of its Member States), requires that “no person is allowed to administer any medicine to an animal unless the product has been granted a Marketing Authorisation”, there remains a moral, ethical and legal imperative on animal owners, and a professional duty on veterinary surgeons, to look after the "animals under their care".  And as with human patients, the lack of an authorised product does not remove the need for treatment.

The EU authorities accept that animal owners and vets have to do their duty.  A decision tree, popularly known as the "Cascade" exists in the legislation and allows the veterinary surgeon to proceed through a series of decisions which steadily move away from the ideal, providing that no authorised product is available for the treatment of that specific patient, the vet may prescribe:

1.     A product authorised for that condition in another species or a product authorised for another condition but in the same species (off-label use)

2.     If no such product exists, an appropriate authorised human medicine

3.     If no such product exists, a product prepared extemporaneously by an authorised person in accordance with a veterinary prescription.

For animals grown for food, the requirement for the active ingredient to have a known MRL remains paramount.

The directives include many medicines given orally, by injection, or applied externally such as ointments.  Also falling under these regulations are many pest treatments and “dips”, such as organophosphates.

These general pesticides can be very hazardous to use.  Section 3 of the course notes provides important information on the use of sprays and pesticides.  Section 4.9 provides some guidance on the use of dips, and giving treatments in feed and by injection.

The diseases and infestations that you need to protect against will be determined by your immediate environment.  Advice is available from vets and from your local officials of your Government Ministry responsible for agriculture.  A useful overview produced in the UK can be found HERE.  A similar useful overview document produced by the Irish Government can be found at: http://www.teagasc.ie/publications/2003/vetbooklet.htm.

B.                 General Safety Policies on Dairy Farms

Dairy farmers often work in isolation, facing risks from animal behaviour, mechanical hazards, climatic conditions, and rushed work deadlines.

Spot the hazard

Look for hazard related to lighting, electricity, slips and trips, training and supervision of new and young workers, animal behaviour, machinery guarding, heavy lifting and carrying.

Assess the risk

Check each identified hazard for likelihood and severity of injury or harm. The greater the risk and severity, the more urgent it is to minimise or eliminate the risk. Consider appropriate changes and make sure new hazards are not created.

Make the changes

The following are to help minimise risks in dairy farming.

• Have adequate lighting for early morning and evening milking.
• Concrete surfaces should be roughened to provide extra traction for both handlers and stock.
• Design the milking shed to minimise physical effort.
• Keep guarding in place on moving parts, e.g. belts and rotaries.
• Check guarding on compressors, pumps, electric motors and grain augers.
• Have an emergency stop lanyard - in addition to the forward-stop-reverse lanyard.
• Have a residual current device (RCD) installed on the electrical circuit board.
• Fit all-weather covers on power boards in wet areas.
• Ensure milk line supports and union joints meet recommended safety levels.
• Cover head-high projections like handles on milk filter casings with padding.
• Keep exhaust pipes clear of walkways.
• Maintain exhaust systems in good order to reduce noise and fumes.
• Fence off effluent disposal ponds to keep out children and stock.
• Clearly mark all water outlets not suitable for human consumption.
• Ensure hot water taps are inaccessible to children.

Strain injuries

Activities that can lead to back strain injuries include:

• long hours working on tractors;
• stock feeding;
• fencing;
• hay and silage preparation;
• irrigation.

To reduce the risk of back strain injuries,

• use mechanical aids, such as hoists, trolleys, barrows and pulleys;
• use team lifting, planning each task in advance;
• keep loads small;
• keep walkways clear;
• modify work areas to minimise bending, lifting, pulling, pushing, restraining, lowering and carrying.
• do repetitive tasks at a comfortable height, with the least amount of bending, stretching or leaning.
• develop safe lifting techniques - using the legs and not the back.

Hot water

• Ensure hot water is safely guarded.
• Have safe procedures for working with or near hot water.
• Make sure hot water taps can be clearly identified.
• If appropriate, fix clear warning signs next to hot water hazards.

Remember

• Ensure adequate lighting for milking.
• Use specialised equipment where you can.
• Plan tasks and modify equipment to minimise hazardous manual handling.

C.                 General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Cattle

Injuries from cattle relate to a number of factors - inadequate yard design, lack of training of handlers, unsafe work practices, and the weight, sex, stress factor and temperament of animals.

Spot the hazard

• Check accident records to identify tasks most likely to cause injury.
• Consider situations that cause stress and injury to handlers and stock.
• Take into account sex, weight and temperament of stock.
• Consider effects of weather and herding on animal behaviour, and time allowed for settling down.
• Check potential hazards and safety advantages of stock facilities, including mechanical aids and work layout.
• Consider what training is required before a person can confidently and competently handle stock.

Assess the risk

• Using accident records, check which tasks and work situations are most frequently linked with injuries.
• Discuss safety concerns of handlers in regard to various tasks.
• Check each identified hazard for likelihood and severity of injury.
• Assess proposed safeguards and safe procedures for other hazards.

Make the changes

Here are some suggestions for improving safety in cattle handling.

• Always plan ahead. Prepare and communicate safe work practices. Get assistance if necessary.
• Wear appropriate clothing, including protective footwear and a hat for sun protection.
• Make use of facilities and aids - headrails, branding cradles, whips, drafting canes, dogs etc.
• Know the limitations of yourself and others - work within those limitations.
• Respect cattle - they have the strength and speed to cause injury.

Facilities and conditions

• Yards and sheds should be strong enough and of a size to match the cattle being handled.
• Good yard design assists the flow of stock. Avoid sharp, blind corners, and ensure gates are well positioned.
• Keep facilities in good repair and free from protruding rails, bolts, wire etc.
• Where cattle need restraining, use crushes, headrails, cradles, etc.
• Footholds and well-placed access ways are important.
• Try to maintain yards in non-slippery condition.
• Cattle are more unpredictable during cold, windy weather.

The stock

• Hazards vary according to the age, sex, breed, weight, horn status, temperament and training of animals.
• Approach cattle quietly, and make sure they are aware of your presence.
• Bulls are more aggressive during mating season and extremely dangerous when fighting. Separate into different yards where appropriate.
• Cows and heifers are most likely to charge when they have a young calf at foot.
• Heifers can also be dangerous at weaning time.
• Isolated cattle often become stressed and are more likely to charge when approached.
• Cattle with sharp horns are dangerous - dehorning is recommended where practicable. Dehorned and polled cattle can still cause injury.

Cattle yarding

• Avoid working in overstocked yards where you risk being crushed or trampled.
• While drafting cattle through a gate, work from one side to avoid being knocked down by an animal trying to go through.
• Take care when working with cattle in a crush, e.g. to vaccinate, apply tail tags, etc. A sudden movement by stock could crush your arms against rails or posts.
• When closing a gate behind cattle in a crush or small yard, stand to one side, or with one foot on the gate in case the mob forces the gate back suddenly.

Kicking and butting

• To avoid kick injuries, attempt to work either outside the animal's kicking range or directly against the animal, where the effect of being kicked will be minimised.
• In dairies there is a high risk of being kicked. Try to follow a regular routine so as not to alarm cows - e.g. by placing cold water on their teats.
• When working on an animal's head, use head bail to restrain it from sudden movement forwards or back.
• Take care when using hazardous equipment, such as brands or knives for castrating or bangtailing.

Stud cattle

• When working with stud cattle, train animals to accept intensive handling through gradual familiarisation, e.g. grooming, washing, clipping.
• When leading cattle on a halter, never wrap the lead rope round your arm or hand. If the animal gets out of control, you could be dragged.
• Bulls should be fitted with a nose ring. When being led, their heads should be held up by the nose lead.

Hygiene

• Be aware of the risks of contracting such diseases as Leptospirosis or Q Fever when working with animals. These diseases are transmitted through contact with blood, saliva and urine. (See section 4.8 for more information.)
• Hygiene is important. Consider vaccinating herds against such diseases.

D.                General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Sheep

Manual handling injuries - wear and tear to the back, shoulders, neck, torso, arms and legs - are the main problems to avoid when handling sheep. Awkward postures, working off balance, and strenuous, repetitive and sudden stress movements can cause immediate or gradual strain injuries and conditions.

Spot the hazard

• Take note of sheep handling activities that put strain on any part of the body.
• Unfit, untrained or out of condition workers are most likely to be injured.
• Check sheep yarding, handling and shearing facilities for injury hazards.
• Check injury records for tasks and situations causing most injuries.
• Discuss hazard concerns with other sheep handlers.

Assess the risk

Assess each identified hazard for the likelihood of injury or harm. Assess also the likely severity of injuries or harm. The more likely and serious the potential injury, the more urgent it is to minimise the risks.

Make the changes

The following suggestions are to help farmers and sheep handlers make sheep handling safer:

• Use a yard design that will encourage sheep to work freely.
• Build yards on sloping ground for better drainage.
• Keep shadows to a minimum where not required to provide shade. Build protective coverings over working and drafting races where practical.
• Avoid slippery surfaces, especially in races and forcing yards.
• Keep dust levels at a minimum.

Fitness and health

People working with sheep should:

• Exercise regularly, and eat a well balanced diet to keep fit and maintain required energy levels.
• Read labels on chemical containers carefully, and follow manufacturers' instructions and safety directions.
• Observe recommended withholding periods for drugs or chemicals before stock are slaughtered.

Working with lambs

• When marking and mulesing lambs, use a cradle where feasible. Keeping a firm grip on lambs helps to avoid cuts and chemical spillage.
• Catchers should wear protective gloves.
• Use a work system on cradles that minimises hazards of being cut, sprayed with chemicals or jabbed with a needle.
• Sterilise knives, shears and ear pliers, and ensure operators observe hygiene practices.

Jetting, dipping, drenching

• Choose chemicals that are most efficient and least harmful to humans. Always wear protective clothing, goggles and breathing equipment where specified.
• Use positive air supply hoods. If headaches or other discomforts occur after handling chemicals, seek medical advice and have appropriate health tests. Avoid using those chemicals in future.
• Ensure correct mixing rates are used.
• Keep equipment well maintained, and check regularly to avoid chemical leakage.

Mustering

• Plan the muster. Sheep movement is affected by wind direction, location of water, etc.
• Allow plenty of time. Do not rush stock.
• Use dogs to control the mob. High speed chases on bikes or horses can cause accidents.

Lifting sheep

• If sheep need to be lifted, get assistance where possible.
• When lifting alone, sit the sheep on its rump, squat yourself down, take a firm hold of its back legs while keeping the sheep's head up to restrict movement. Pull the animal firmly against your body, and lift using your legs, not your back.
• If lifting over a fence, do not attempt to drag the sheep over. Rather, work from the same side as the sheep.
• To save lifting, put a drafting gate at the end of the handling race. It is advisable to have several positions for "drop gates" in the race to hold sheep that are to be drafted off.

Rams

• Rams can be aggressive and unpredictable. Treat them with caution.
• When working rams in a race, ensure you are protected from those behind you. This applies particularly when checking testicles, etc. A well-positioned drop gate is useful to reduce the hazard.

Transmittable diseases

• Animals carry diseases that are transferable to humans. Be familiar with the symptoms so you can determine if disease exists in the flock.
• If signs of disease appear, have the disease confirmed and animals tested.
• If the disease is present, treat affected animals appropriately and vaccinate to prevent further occurrence.
• Diseases are transmitted by urine, blood and saliva, and through open wounds (e.g. scabby mouth).
• Keep open wounds covered. Wash well with water, soap and antiseptic if contact is made with urine, blood or saliva from diseased animals.
• Personal hygiene is important at all times.

E.                 General Safety Criteria for the Shearing of Shee 

Hazards in shearing generally involve machinery, electrical fittings, sheep yard design, slippery and obstructed floors, sharp tools, equipment and protrusions, chemicals, heat stress, and strain injuries from repetitive, awkward and strenuous work.

Spot the hazard

Conduct a safety audit of shearing sheds, pens, flooring, machinery, wool presses, electrical fittings, connections and cables, lighting, ventilation, and the experience and safety training of those involved, particularly young workers.

Assess the risk

Assess identified hazards for likelihood to cause injury or harm. Assess also the potential seriousness of the injury or harm. Consider various safeguards and safe procedures, and assess these for other possible hazards before deciding a plan of action. 

Make the changes

Many safety innovations have been developed and implemented to reduce shearing injuries. The following suggestions are to help farmers minimise risks:

• Design steps, ramps, pens, entrances, flooring, gates and latches to minimise the risk of strain and trip injuries to shearers and helpers.
• Ensure sheds are well lit and ventilated; cool in summer and draught free in winter.
• Keep a suitably equipped first aid box in the shearing shed.
• Have suitable, functional fire-fighting equipment available in shearing sheds and quarters.

Machinery

• Keep shearing machinery safely guarded to prevent it catching limbs, clothing or fleeces.
• Place stopping mechanisms within ready reach in case of emergency.
• Ensure a safe distance between shearing positions, to prevent the risk of downtubes clashing and creating cut hazards.
• Keep handpieces well maintained to eliminate vibration injuries.
• Choose quiet machinery or isolate noisy machinery to prevent hearing damage.
• Choose wool presses designed not to trap workers' hands.
• Consider having electric motors on wool presses to reduce noise and air pollution.
• Consider providing back support harnesses and equipment for shearers.

Manual handling

• Keep shearing floors and passage ways clean and clear of obstructions.
• Ensure floors in catching pens are kept clean and dry to reduce slip hazards.
• Allow sheep to empty out and settle down before moving them into the shed.
• Consider providing back support equipment for shearers.
• Keep shed hands clear of shearers unless they need to be there, or are called on for assistance.
• Keep dogs out of the working area, and don't tie them up where people can trip over them.

Fitness and health

• Shearers and rural workers should exercise regularly and eat a well balanced diet to guard against injury and maintain the required energy levels.
• In hot weather, take regular drinks of cool water or non-alcohol fluids to avoid heat stress.
• Maintain a good posture during physical work, and use your legs to lift, not your back.

F.                 General Safety Criteria for Horse Riding

Horses have the speed, strength and ability to cause injury. Riders need training and skill, and the concentration and ability to handle unexpected situations. Clothing and equipment are important for safe riding and handling of horses.

Spot the hazard

Look for hazards relating to rider training and experience, the horse's training and temperament, hazardous terrain and weather conditions, difficult roundup work, clothing, footwear and riding equipment.

Assess the risk

Check identified hazards for likelihood and severity of injury or harm. Consider the background, training and experience of horses and riders. Where risk of injury or harm is considered likely, plan safer procedures.

Make the changes

Here are some suggested ways of reducing risk.

• Plan ahead - consider safe work practices. Get assistance if necessary.
• Wear appropriate gear - leather soled riding boots are recommended as they are designed to slip easily out of the stirrup in case of an accident. Do not use boots with half-sole repairs. Jeans, jodhpurs or long trousers will prevent chafing, and a hat will provide protection from the sun.
• An approved riding helmet (polo or pony club style) should be worn where above average risk is involved, e.g. inexperienced riders, horse-breaking etc.
• Know your limitations, and avoid riding horses that are likely to exploit those limitations.

The equipment

• Keep bridles and bits in good condition, and fitted so the horse is comfortable.
• Ensure saddles and girths are kept in good repair - stirrup leathers, girth straps and surcingles should be well oiled and checked regularly.
• Stirrup irons should be of a size that allows the foot to slip in and out freely, without allowing it to slip through.
• Keep saddle cloths free from burrs and other foreign material.
• Horses vary in conformation, temperament, ability and levels of training. Some require breastplates or cruppers to keep the saddle in place, and running rings, nosebands or headchecks to keep their head and neck in a position for easy control.
• A breastplate is a good safeguard in case the girth breaks or comes loose.

The horse

• Great care is needed when galloping close to a beast at high speed. It is extremely dangerous to allow a horse to touch a running beast behind the shoulder. The horse can fall by touching the beast's hind legs, or from the beast turning completely under the horse's neck.
• In stock yards, be careful riding under gate caps. Some are too low for the horse and rider to pass under safely.
• High speed chases on horses can cause accidents - where practicable, use dogs to control stock.
• Extra care should be taken when riding in boggy or slippery conditions.
• Riders should be matched to horses that are within their handling capabilities. Do not assign an inexperienced person with a flighty, uneducated horse.
• Mounting is easier if the horse is facing uphill.
• If there is no yard to ride in, frisky horses should be taken to a creek bed or sandy area. The horse finds it harder to buck in sand, and the rider finds it softer to fall on.

Difficult horses

• It is not advisable to persevere with horses that are likely to buck, bolt or become uncontrollable. Some tolerance however is generally accepted during the breaking-in and early stages of training.
• If a horse is likely to buck, it is best to saddle it and give it some exercise prior to mounting. This can be carried out in a number of ways, e.g. by "lunging" or leading it from another horse. The horse should then be mounted and ridden in a small yard before being ridden in an unconfined area.
• If a horse is likely to bolt, it should first be ridden in a yard. If a horse bolts in an unconfined area, the rider should remain calm and gradually circle the horse until the horse comes under control.
• Riders should remain alert and in a position of control while mounted - adjusting equipment is a job to be carried out from the ground.

G.                General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Pigs

Pig handlers face injuries from the size, strength and temperament of the animals they tend. Injuries may also relate to training of handlers, the safe design of pens, lanes and other yarding, and the administering of drugs and chemicals. Noise in pig sheds can reach levels that require hearing protection.

Spot the hazard

Check the safety of pens, floors and lanes, handling and restraining of animals, safety training for new and young workers, safe lifting methods, safe use of chemicals, and protection from diseases carried by pigs. Study worker injury records for evidence of hazardous jobs and situations.

Assess the risk

Assess whether any of the hazards identified are likely to cause injury or harm, and base safety decisions on the likelihood and possible severity of the injury or harm.

Make the changes

The following suggestions are to help minimise or eliminate the risk of injury or harm in pig handling:

• Check pens and lanes are large and strong enough for the pigs being handled.
• Ensure pen design assists the smooth flow of pigs - avoid sharp, blind corners, and ensure gates are well positioned.
• Keep facilities in good repair and free from protruding rails, bolts, wire and rubbish.
• Where pigs need restraining, use crushes and nose ropes.
• Try to maintain non-slippery conditions, especially in lanes and loading yards.

Stock factors

• Safety in pig handling varies according to a number of factors - age, sex, breed, weight, temperament and training of the animal.
• Boars can be aggressive and unpredictable. Treat them with caution.
• Boars are most aggressive during mating, and extremely dangerous when fighting.
• Prevent boars from coming in contact with each other at all times.
• When moving boars, use a drafting board.

Lifting pigs

• When lifting pigs, get assistance where possible.
• When lifting alone, sit the pig on its hindquarters, squat down, take a firm hold of the back legs, pull the animal firmly against your body and lift, using your legs and not your back.
• Remember, when lifting a pig this way, make sure the pig's head is positioned so that it cannot bring its head back into your face.

Chemicals, vaccinations and injections

• Read labels on chemicals and antibiotic containers carefully - follow manufacturers' instructions and safety directions.
• Sterilise needles, teeth cutters and ear pliers, and ensure operators observe hygienic practices.
• Observe recommended withholding periods for drugs and chemicals before pigs are slaughtered.
• Wear appropriate protective clothing.
• If headaches or any other discomfort is suffered after handling chemicals, seek medical advice and have appropriate tests.
• Avoid these chemicals if possible in future, and use full protective clothing and breathing filters when handling chemicals in the feed mill.
• Ensure correct dosage rates are maintained.

Transmittable diseases

• Animals carry diseases that can be transmitted to humans. Be familiar with the symptoms so you can tell if these diseases exist in the herd.
• If signs of disease appear, have the disease confirmed and animals tested. If the disease is present, treat affected animals appropriately and vaccinate to prevent further occurrence. Maintain a vaccination program.
• Diseases like Leptospirosis are transferred by urine, blood and saliva, and through open wounds. Keep open wounds covered and wash well with water, soap and antiseptic if contact is made with blood, urine or saliva from diseased animals (See Topic 19 on Zoonoses for further information).
• Maintain personal hygiene at all times.

H.                General Safety Criteria to Minimise the Risks of Zoonoses

"Zoonoses" is the name given to animal diseases that can cause illness in people. Often animal carriers are not obviously ill, yet people in contact with them can become infected.  Farm animals are a common source of infection, and people most at risk are abattoir workers, farmers, veterinarians, livestock handlers and animal laboratory workers.  Leptospirosis, Q Fever, Hydatid Disease and Orf are the zoonoses of most concern in Western Australia.

Spot the hazard

• Review infection control during animal handling procedures.
• Be aware of contamination sources.
• Check availability and use of suitable disinfectants.
• Check handling and disposal procedures for contaminated materials.
• Check if farm dogs eat meat or offal from farm-killed sheep or wild animals.

Assess the risk

Consider the likelihood of disease or harm occurring. Assess whether existing safe procedures are working or need improving. Establish whether others on the farm have immunity to various zoonoses, either through vaccination or having had the disease.

Make the changes

The following information is to help farmers understand zoonoses hazards, so that the risk of infection can be minimised or eliminated.

Leptospirosis

Flu-like symptoms include headaches, muscle pains, fever, chills, sensitivity to light and a stiff neck. Some people also develop kidney or liver problems.

• Avoid direct contact with animal urine, contaminated water, and birth fluids, especially from pigs.
• Infection enters through cuts in the skin or through the linings of eyes, nose or throat.
• Leptospirosis can be treated with antibiotics. If you think you may be infected see a doctor quickly.
• Clean benches and floors with detergents or disinfectants. Eradicate rats and mice. Ensure good drainage of stock areas, and hygienic disposal of effluent.

Q Fever

Q Fever also feels like 'flu', with headaches, muscle pains and fever, that may progress to pneumonia. Some people develop liver and heart problems.

• Avoid breathing contaminated dust, air infected by animal after-birth and birth fluids, drinking unpasteurised milk, or contact with contaminated straw, wool, hair or hides.
• Found in a wide range of domestic and wild animals, such as sheep, goats, bandicoots and wallabies.
• Disinfect, burn or bury infected materials.
• Treat and cover cuts quickly.
• Milk should be pasteurised or boiled.
• Q Fever in humans can be treated with antibiotics. If you think you are infected see a doctor quickly.

Hydatid Disease

In the early stages of Hydatid Disease no symptoms may be felt. Symptoms depend on the site of the parasitic cyst which is the cause of the disease. The most common site is in the liver.

• Symptoms due to a large liver cyst may be a sense of weight, vomiting, feeling overly full after meals, or pain, indigestion and jaundice (abnormal yellow discolouration of the body).
• Cysts may also occur in the lungs. Early symptoms may be coughing, chest pain or coughing blood. The first symptom may be coughing up salty fluid after rupture of a cyst. This may lead to shock from allergy, itching of the skin or chest infection.
• Cysts in other body organs may cause seizures, blindness, deafness, kidney pain or heart problems. All these forms are potentially deadly, and the rupture of a cyst at any site can cause death from shock due to allergy.
• Hydatid disease is caught by humans from dogs that have eaten the raw meat or offal of sheep, cattle, goats, kangaroos or wild pigs carrying Hydatid cysts.
• Eating with infected hands or other hand-to-mouth contact after patting a dog is enough for eggs of the Hydatid worm to be swallowed and cause infection.
• When swallowed, Hydatid eggs are transported by the blood to other parts of the body.
• Dogs and dingoes carry the worm in their gut without becoming ill.

Treating Hydatid Disease

Hydatid cysts can cause serious illness in humans. The only effective treatment is surgery to remove the cysts, sometimes in conjunction with anti-worm drugs. Some cysts in vital organs cannot be surgically removed.

Reducing infection risk

• Don't allow dogs to eat raw meat or offal from farm killed sheep, goats or cattle, or feral and native animals like pigs, goats and kangaroos.
• Make sure dogs are given a regular tape worm treatment - consult your vet for the most effective program.
• Dogs should be prevented from eating animals that die on the farm or in the bush. Carcasses should be disposed of as quickly as possible.
• Don't allow children to play with stray dogs.

Orf (scabby mouth)

The disease known as Orf or scabby mouth in sheep and goats can affect humans in other ways.

• Red areas or pimple-like lesions appear, often at the site of a graze or cut. This becomes a blister surrounded by red swollen skin that can turn into an ulcer and take four to six weeks to heal. Regional lymph glands may become swollen in some cases.
• Contact with sheep or sheep products is the usual cause of infection to humans, though goats are occasionally a source of infection.
• The Orf virus usually enters through cuts or abrasions.
• Orf sores should be treated with antiseptic dressings to prevent bacterial infection and spread. Usually healing and recovery occurs even without treatment, and you will not get the disease again.

Health Alert card

An Occupational Health Alert card is available from your local authorities/government agencies responsible for supervising farming activities (usually the Ministry of Agriculture, or a Department for Occupational Health and Safety) to alert doctors that a patient may have caught a disease from animals.  An example is provided in the Glossary to these notes.

Reducing infection risk

Cuts and abrasions from handling sheep should be treated with disinfectant and covered to avoid reinfection.

Learn to recognise the disease in animals (thick scabs or ulcers on the nose, lips, eyes or other hairless areas) and avoid contact.

I.                   Safe Use and Handling of Animal Medications & Parasite Controls

Dipping

This is a process normally applied to sheep and mostly carried out in the UK due to local legislation.  Sheep dips are classed as "veterinary medicines" rather than as “pesticides” and at one time were used by every sheep farmer in the UK to protect sheep against external parasites.  The majority of formulations contain organophosphate active ingredients, which it is now known can lead to both short-term and long-term effects on users.  Some argue that UK farmers have not been properly protected either by the law or by regulators.

Sheep suffer from external parasites such as blowflies, or from keds, ticks, lice, and scab.  In the UK the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (now known as DEFRA) published advice for sheep farmers stating "Sheep scab is a disease caused by a parasitic mite which lives on the skin surface.  The feeding activities of the mite cause irritation and distress.  This can result in stunting or severe loss of condition, loss of fleece, and death - especially of lambs ..." Dipping, by running sheep through a bath of dip solution, aims to rid animals of such parasites.

In the UK in 1988, about 40 million sheep on 18,765 farms were dipped.  The manufacturers' association, the National Office of Animal Health (NOAH) refer to "Britain's 95,000 sheep farmers and their staff dipping sheep twice a year [in the 1980s]."  Until 1989, the law in the UK required compulsory dipping twice a year in an effort to eradicate scab, a notifiable disease. In 1989 and 1990, only one dip was required.  In 1992, dipping for scab ceased to be compulsory, and the disease became no longer notifiable.

What are the costs and benefits and risks of the use of particular pesticides?  A prominent commentator on dipping, Dr Jack Done of the Centre for Agricultural Strategy, Reading University, considers that compulsory dipping has brought us no nearer eradication than when it was begun in 1973.  Eradication was successful in the period 1952 to 1972.  Since 1973, statistical analysis shows that the mean annual incidence of scab in the five double-dipping years (1984-88) was not significantly different from that in any other five consecutive years. or from the whole period since sheep scab was introduced in 1972 . For 95 cases of scab in 1990, 35 million sheep had to be dipped.

The human cost of sheep dipping, the adverse health effects resulting from the exposure of operators and others to organophosphate active ingredients in the dips, is only now being recognised.

Farmers are concerned that they have little protection from hazardous chemicals.  Protective clothing alone is not a practical method of preventing exposure to dipping solution for a farmer having to haul a heavy sheep in and out of dips, and the "aerosol effect" of sheep shaking themselves dry after dipping means that the atmosphere is soon laden with chemical.

So far it is uncertain whether the route of exposure for those who have suffered adverse effects is dermal, inhalatory, or by ingestion. In the UK, the Health and Safety Executive has said that tests done in the 1980s showed that there were no traces of OP vapour in breathing areas, but considered that solvents and phenols might be inhaled and cause adverse effects.  Phenol dips are to be withdrawn (see under Regulatory control).  Current HSE advice does not recommend a face mask when dipping.

The Veterinary Medicines Directorate in the UK has taken a different view.  It has published advice for farmers which is headlined "Sheep dip concentrates contain either an organophosphorous or a pyrethroid insecticide.  Some may also contain phenols.  These substances can be absorbed quite readily in the body through the skin, nose and mouth.  Careless handling can endanger human health."

Given these facts farmers are quite justified in asking for clear guidance on whether face masks required.  The Ministry advice is not clear, "Dip concentrates and dip wash must be handled with care at all times - some constituents if inhaled or absorbed through the skin can cause poisoning".

Protective clothing is advised by the literature for performing dipping operations.  Current advice from HSE recommends personal protective equipment, which should include "rubber gloves, coverall, and a faceshield when handling the concentrate and rubber boots, rubber gloves and waterproof coat or bib apron when handling the diluted liquid and freshly dipped sheep".

Although protective clothing is recommended. there are as yet no agreed standards for protective clothing for pesticides throughout the EU.  For example, in Germany, the Government has introduced new testing and "instructions for use" requirements for protective clothing.  The pesticide manufacturer must include all details on wearing protective clothing in his "instructions for use" literature.  In the UK there is no clearly defined system of approval of protective clothing materials.

The effects of dips on the environment: In the UK, one angry farmer wrote to the magazine,“Farmers' Weekly” to complain "After spending an entire day some years ago telephoning the Government Ministry Departments, Safety Management organizations, the water boards, the National Farmers’ Union, to ask for advice on safe disposal, we had numerous instructions about how not to dispose of it, but not one practical piece of advice as to what we should actually do to get rid of it."

Recent advice to farmers on disposing of sheep dip is to pour it down "soakaways" or to spread it on fields away from surface waters. The EC considers that this may breach the 1980 Groundwater Directive, and that the dip must be incinerated, or dumped at licensed landfill sites.

A report by the Tweed River Purification Board has shown that sheep dipping caused pesticide contamination in 17 out of 20 river catchments in the Borders area of southern Scotland in autumn 1989; 40% of sheep dips were thought likely to cause pollution. The pesticides concerned were diazinon and propetamphos. The Water Research Centre expressed concern about the lack of ecotoxicological data for such products.

The results of an earlier survey of the Grampian area, published at the same time, also reported pollution by organochlorine and organophosphate dips . Indeed, an estimate was made of the "polluting potential" of the usage, disposal and spillage of chemical from a typical sheep dip tank. The resulting concentration of, say, propetamphos would lead to a flow of between 10 and 20 times the EC drinking water limit over a 24-hour period.

River authorities are concerned at the lack of invertebrate life that characterises rivers polluted by OP dips. Other 'non-target' species at risk, are waterfowl and geese which are more sensitive to OPs than other farm animals.

Giving Treatments in Feed

The most common form of food additive are Macrolides, a group of antibiotics used for the treatment of animals, but outside of the EU they are also used for growth promotion.  For these as any other medicinal additive to feed it is essential to wear appropriate personal protective equipment (as specified in the MSDS supplied with the product) when mixing your feed.  It should be noted that the digestive system of ruminants means that antibiotics and other anti-microbial drugs are generally best given by injection since there is a poor absorption of these drugs through the digestive system.

Giving Treatments by injection

The most common injection given on a farm will generally be for the vaccination of stock against a range of illnesses.  When giving injections it is important that you are safe from kicking, biting, scratching, or pecking, but also that you avoid breaking the needle in the animal.  This may not be straight forward as you can never predict how the animal will react.  The best guidance and advice on vaccinations can be obtained from your local vet who will be familiar with the diseases and conditions that you will need to vaccinate against and can show you how to administer the injection.

Some guidance has also been prepared by organisations representing specific farming communities.  For example the Canadian Government’s Ministry of Agriculture and Food has provided guidance on the vaccination of pigs and how to avoid needles breaking inside the pigs.  These can be found here, but are summarised here, since the guidance will apply to almost any situation:

Prevent needles from breaking - use proper injection techniques

• Never straighten bent needles for reuse. This is the single most common cause of breaking needles during injections.

• Never inject pigs on the move. Restrain them prior to and during injection with your hands, a sorting board or a snare, according to the size of the animals to be injected.

• Change needles frequently. Replace needles after injecting either 10 pigs, or one litter of piglets.

• Use the correct length and gauge of needle according to the weight of the pigs. Inject pigs at right angles to the skin (see CQAÒ Injection Techniques For Swine poster).

• Always inspect needles for damage following each injection.

• Use a plastic syringe whenever practical. Needles with plastic syringes will usually break off at the plastic hubs, leaving visible and grippable stubs which are easy to remove from pigs. Aluminum or stainless steel needles are stronger than plastic ones and may not offer this advantage when they break.

Adopt good management practices

• Use trained and designated personnel to inject the pigs.

• Inject pigs in the neck. Never inject pigs in the ham, due to carcass quality concerns.

• Manage needles on the farm through inventory checking and record keeping–what goes in, must come out.

• Establish a farm protocol for handling any incidence of broken needles. Educate staff on proper identification and reporting of broken needles. Make this mandatory.

Adopt new technologies and products

• Detectable Needles - Use needles that can be detected by high-speed metal detectors in packing plants. These needles are now manufactured in Canada and the United States and test results show they are more easily detected than standard needles. Maple Leaf Pork and Olymel already announced that effective June 30^th producers who ship hogs to their plants must use detectable needles on the farm. Other packers may follow suit soon.

Note that detectable needles can't replace proper injection technique and good management practice. Detectable needles that break must still be reported prior to shipping. Furthermore, packing plant metal detectors are not entirely fool proof in finding foreign materials, because some cuts of meat are not easily checked by the equipment and false positives or negatives are possible.

·         Needle-free injectors - The most recent development for injections is the availability of needle-free injectors.  These injectors can be used for all sizes of pigs and are best suited for injecting large numbers of animals at one time, such as for vaccination.  In addition to the elimination of broken needles, these products claim other benefits:

o        no cross- contamination of disease causing biological agents such as PRRS virus

o        improved carcass quality

o        increased human safety

o        no requirement for disposal of used needles

Protocols for handling broken needles

Needles can break during injections. When a needle breaks, take the following steps to ensure the incident is handled appropriately.

Step 1. Mark the animal immediately

·         Identify the hog with a permanent mark.

·         Record the incident, including the location of the broken needle and the ear tag number.

Step 2. Remove the broken needles

·         Attempt to remove the broken needle immediately if possible.

·         Call your veterinarian for assistance if the needle cannot be removed.

·         Make sure all the pieces of a broken needle are recovered.

Note that the cost of removing the needle at this stage may be much lower than allowing the needle to remain, where it may get lost and possibly destroy the value of the whole carcass. In addition, allowing broken needles to remain could compromise the animal's well-being.

Step 3. Slaughter the animal on-farm

·         If removal of the broken needle has failed, consider the option of slaughtering the animal on-farm.

Step 4. Inform your marketing agency and/or your packer

If steps 1, 2, and 3 are not possible, then take the following action:

·         Ear tag the animal.

·         Contact the Ontario Pork Producers Marketing Board and/or your packer at least one week prior to shipping an animal with a broken needle, or a suspected broken needle, from the farm. Be aware that different packers may have different requirements for identification and for notification.  Note that informing the marketing board or a packer means a phone call to a person; not just a message left on an answering machine, a fax or an email. Shipping and/or receiving an animal that may contain a broken needle is a major event. Everyone involved should be notified at least seven days in advance. Prior notice allows for proper arrangements to be made for the hog.

Equivalent guidance for cattle is given at http://www.dairyinfo.gc.ca/cdicofqm10.htm, including advice on how to prevent bruising during the vaccination.