PART II. Choosing Equipment and Machinery
A. General Principles
B. Operating a Tractor
C. Operating Ag Bikes (including Quads and Trikes)
D. Tractor Maintenance
E. Guarding Moving Machinery
F. Safety in Workshops
G. Working Safely With Electricity
H. Safety in Welding and Allied Repair Processes

PART III. Choosing Spraying and Cleaning Strategies
A. The basics
B. Farm chemicals: Storage and Disposal
C. Safe Use of Farm chemicals: Pesticide Sprays

PART IV. Choosing Animal Handling and Treatment Strategies
A. Primary Considerations
B. General Safety Policies on Dairy Farms
C. General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Cattle
D. General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Sheep
E. General Safety Criteria for the Shearing of Sheep
F. General Safety Criteria for Horse Riding
G. General Safety Criteria for the Handling of Pigs
H. General Safety Criteria to Minimise the Risks of Zoonoses
I. Safe Use and Handling of Animal Medications & Parasite Controls

PART V. Choosing Fertilizers and Soil Treatments
A. General Principles
B. UK Guidelines on the Management of Farm Manures to Ensure Food Safety
C. Safe Storage and Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia
D. Safe Storage and Handling of Ammonium Nitrate based Fertilizers and Soil Additives
E. Safe Storage and Handling of Urea based Fertilizers and Soil Additives
F. Equipment maintenance: Fertilizer applicators

PART VI. Avoiding Accidents During Normal Farm Working
A. Background
B. Skin Cancer
C. Heat Stress
D. Avoiding Accidents With Children
E. Avoiding Accidents During Lifting and Manual Handling
F. Long Term effects of Farm Noise
G. Working Safely With Silos
H. Dangers From Hay Baling Operations
I. Protecting Yourself When Fire Fighting
J. Long Term Effects of Whole Body Vibrations
K. Overhead Power Lines

PART VII. Glossary

PART VI.     AVOIDING COMMON ACCIDENTS AND HAZARDS DURING NORMAL FARM WORKING

A.      Background

After tractor and farm vehicle accidents, the majority of farm casualties are caused by:

• People falling from height (off ladders and out of hay lofts for example)

• Falling objects (such as stacked hay bales)
• Electrocution (during the maintenance of generators and other electrical equipment)

Increasingly though there are other factors causing concern for the long term health of farmers and farm workers.  These include skin cancer, the effects of heat, and the effects of sustained vibration and excessive noise levels.  In the sections that follow we provide some general guidance and advice to avoid the potentially fatal or debilitating conditions that can arise.

B.                 Skin Cancer

Exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun is the main cause of skin cancers in Australia. Skin damage from the sun is cumulative - the longer the skin is exposed to the sun, the greater the risk of skin cancers, regardless of your tan or skin pigment.

Rural workers have a high risk of getting skin cancers, as their work can expose them to long periods of ultraviolet radiation.

Spot the hazard

To help you spot skin cancer hazards, consider:

• Lack of shade in outdoor work areas.
• Reflective surfaces, eg water, cement, shiny metal or white painted sheds and silos, cement surfaces.
• What jobs are done in sunlight, and how long they take.
• What are the peak sun hours.
• The day's ultraviolet exposure forecast.
• What body surfaces are exposed to sunlight.
• Whether sun blockout is provided or used.
• Whether protective clothing is available and worn.

Assess the risk

To assess the risk of skin cancer from identified hazards:

• Work out approximately how long is spent working outdoors each day.
• Identify what jobs are normally done in peak sun - between 10am and 4pm.
• Check whether shade is available for outdoor jobs.
• Check whether hats, protective clothing and sunscreens are adequate.
• Check whether SPF15+ sunscreen is applied to all exposed skin areas.
• Ensure sunscreen is re-applied during outdoor work.

Learn to identify various types of skin cancer, and check your skin for sunspots and unusual pigmentation.  The Glossary contains details on the most common forms of skin cancer 

Be aware of short term injury risks:

• reddened skin, blistering, swelling, and later, peeling of the skin.
• photosensitisation - acute skin reaction to UV with certain drugs, ointments, creams, and chemicals, resulting in increased sunburn and skin damage.
• photoconjunctivitis and photokeratitis - sore, red, gritty swollen eyes, with sensitivity to strong lights.

Long term effects include:

• Prematurely ageing - wrinkling, wasting skin tissues, excessive pigmentation, spots marked by clusters of tiny blood vessels.
• Cataracts of the eye.

Make the changes

• Wear cool, protective clothing, i.e. a shady hat, shirt with collar and long sleeves, and long trousers.
• Use a sunscreen with a high sun protection factor (SPF +15) before you go into the sun.
• Noses, lips, ears, bald heads, necks and backs of hands need extra protection.
• Reapply sunscreen regularly, especially if you are sweating.
• Make use of shade areas wherever possible in the high risk hours.
• Use a tractor with shade protection fitted.
• To safeguard against cataracts, sunglasses that conform to with applicable standards are recommended.

Early signs

Check your skin for early signs of skin cancer:

• any unusual skin conditions that don't heal in four weeks;
• any sore, ulcer or scaly patch on the skin;
• a white patch on the lips that doesn't heal;
• any mole that seems to grow quickly;
• any mole that changes shape or colour;
• any mole that bleeds or repeatedly itches.

If you find any of these signs, see your doctor.

Remember : Over-exposure to the sun's rays increases the skin cancer risk both now and in the future.

C.                 Heat Stress

The effects of heat stress range from simple discomfort to life threatening heat stroke. Heat stress causes increased sweating which leads to loss of body fluid and then reduced heat tolerance. This results in reduced capacity for work, inefficiency, and increased risk of hazardous incidents.

Heat stroke, a rarer condition, is when sweating stops and body heat rises. This is a life threatening condition, and requires immediate medical attention.

Spot the hazard

Heat stress hazards can occur through:

• high temperatures,
• high humidity,
• lack of air movement,
• unsuitable clothing,
• a person's lack of acclimatisation,
• hot protective clothing or equipment,
• physical activity,
• radiant temperature of surroundings.

Warnings

Warning signs of heat stress are:

• tiredness,
• headache,
• nausea,
• loss of concentration,
• muscle cramps,
• dizziness.

Assess the risk

Using weather forecasts, availability of shade, knowledge of the job ahead, and an awareness of individual workers' heat tolerance, assess whether the day's tasks could cause heat stress or heat stroke. Consider ways of minimising or eliminating the risks.

Those most at risk

Working in a hot environment is more likely to adversely affect people who are:

• overweight,
• medically unfit,
• unacclimatised to heat,
• unhealthy, particularly if suffering from heart disease,
• dehydrated, whether from alcoholic hangover, failure to replace salt and water lost in sweat, or from medically prescribed diuretic drugs.

Make the changes

Indoors

• Open windows and doors to allow natural cross ventilation, or install air conditioning if practicable.
• Provide fans or ventilators to lower temperature and increase air movement.
• Insulate roof, walls or heat making equipment.
• Duct hot steam and gases outside to help reduce humidity and lower temperature.
• Install extraction ventilation around heat producing equipment.

Outdoors

• Wear cool cotton clothing to allow air circulation and evaporation of sweat.
• Use a broad spectrum sunburn cream with an SPF of 15+.
• Wear broad brimmed hats that shade head, neck, face and ears.
• Wear close fitting sunglasses with side shields, labelled to meet Australian Standard AS 1067.
• Use a wetted scarf.
• Provide shaded rest areas.
• Provide an ample supply of cooled, non-alcoholic drinks and ensure they are easily accessible.
• Drink small amounts of water at frequent intervals to avoid dehydration.
• Re-schedule heavier work for cooler times of the day or for cooler days.
• Where possible, rotate work so workers spend less time each on heavy tasks.

Heat stroke

If heat stroke occurs:

• Remove the person from heat and allow to rest in the coolest available place.
• Cool the person down with a fine spray of water and fan them.
• Remove excess clothing.
• If conscious, give them cool, but not cold, water to drink.
• Contact a doctor, nurse or first aid officer immediately.
• Do not give salt or alcohol.

Remember : If working in hot weather:

• Replenish lost fluid - take small drinks frequently.
• Reduce sun exposure during the hottest hours of the day.
• Rest frequently in a cool place.

D.      Avoiding Accidents With Children
Children who live on farms or who come to visit are often at greater risk than adults who work there. To make your farm safer for children, hazards must be spotted and risks minimised before children discover them. The safest farms for children are those where safety is a priority for everyone.

Spot the hazard

Ask children to help you to spot hazards. Identify places where children like to play, perhaps where they are not supposed to be, and the sort of things they might like doing. Consider dams, streams and pools, silos, tractors, electricity, workshops and machinery sheds, chemical storage areas, farm bikes, guns and dangerous stock.

Assess the risk

For each identified risk, assess the likelihood and possible severity of injury or harm. Ask the children to help. Make high risk areas your top priority for safety improvements.

Make the changes

The following suggestions will help you to minimise risks to children on your farm.

Fences

• For small children, have an effective fence around the house and yard.
• Fence off septic tanks, sheep dips, seepage pits, ponds dams, pools and creeks particularly if close to the house.
• Maintain fences round nearby paddocks and work yards to protect small children from animals, vehicles, machinery, road traffic.
• Have safe, fenced-off areas where children can play.

Workshop

• Ensure gates, doors and locking systems keep young children out of workshops and hazardous storage areas.
• Have safety rules for older children who may need to enter these areas on farm duties.
• Keep workshops free from child hazards relating to electricity, power tools, fire, poisoning, slips, trips, falls and other dangers.

Pesticides

• Keep farm pesticides locked away out of children's reach.
• Fence off pesticide mixing and wash-down bays to prevent access by children.
• Keep children out of orchards after spraying.

Silos, grain storage

• Keep grain storage bins, silos, augers and trucks, adequately guarded to prevent access by children.
• Never allow children to play on stored grain in silos.
• Ensure fixed ladders are guarded and kept above children's reach.
• Have rules keeping children out of grain loading and storage areas unless under close supervision.

Machinery and equipment

• Lock tractors, trucks and other farm machinery away after use, out of bounds to children.
• Electrical appliances and tools should be turned off, disengaged and kept inaccessible to young children.
• Keep firearms, ammunition and explosives locked and out of children's reach.

Protection from animals

• Have rules to safeguard children from dogs that might attack or bite.
• Ensure small children cannot wander into animal pens and stockyards with confined stock.

Ladders

• Store ladders away to prevent children climbing roofs, silos, trees and other height hazards.
• Ensure fixed ladders on silos, bins, tank stands, windmills etc. are adequately guarded against children attempting to climb them.

Emergency first aid

• Have an emergency plan for dealing with serious accidents.
• Keep a first aid kit suitable for children, and have someone trained in first aid.

Do you:

• Have a 24-hour safety program for everyone on the farm?
• Set a good safety example for children?
• Safeguard children from potential hazards?

E.       Avoiding Accidents During Lifting and Manual Handling

Manual handling or strain injuries can keep farm workers away from work for weeks at a time. They can happen from lifting, pushing, pulling, carrying, lowering, holding or restraining.

Injuries occur through:

• increased wear and tear or damage, e.g. from intense or strenuous manual activity;
• gradual wear and tear, e.g. from frequent or prolonged periods of activity (continuous handling of hay bales); heavy or awkward lifts (lifting heavy machinery onto a ute);
• sudden damage, e.g. from unexpected movement (carrying a heavy object over uneven ground, stumbling, tripping or falling).

Spot the hazard

Conduct safety audits of all farm jobs involving manual handling. Take note of heavy, stressful, awkward or repetitive activities. Check injury records to see which activities have caused most strain injuries. Look for difficult handling jobs that could be made easier.

Assess the risk

Assess the likelihood of each identified hazard resulting in injury or harm. Use injury records to assess the potential risk of various tasks. If you consider there is a significant risk of serious injury, look for the best way to minimise the risk.

Make the changes

Here are some suggestions to help you make the changes:

• Plan ahead. Consider the safest possible ways of lifting, carrying, holding, lowering, pushing, pulling.
• Eliminate unnecessary tasks.
• Avoid double handling.
• Use mechanical aids.
• Carry out a safety check first.

Lighten the load

• Where possible, choose light-weight materials.
• Divide heavy loads into smaller loads.
• Purchase in smaller bags.
• Half fill containers.
• Get help to share the load.

Reduce bending, twisting, reaching

• Point your feet in the direction of the load you are carrying.
• Keep tools and equipment within easy reach.
• Build benches to waist height.
• Keep frequently used items at waist height.

Follow a safe procedure

• Plan the handling.
• Clear the way.
• Wear appropriate protective clothing.

Correct body techniques

• When lifting a load from ground level, bend knees, keep back straight, keep load close to your body, lift with leg muscles, support forearms with knees, and support the load with your body.
• When lowering a load, use leg muscles and lower the load by bending your knees, not your back. Where possible, support forearms on knees.

Avoid muscle fatigue

• Warm up first.
• Take frequent breaks.
• Change jobs to use different muscles.
• Gradually get used to the job.
• Ensure the tractor seat is well sprung.
• Adopt good posture when standing or sitting at a job.
• Instead of crouching or squatting for low jobs, use a small stool.

Mechanical aids

Consider using:

• trolleys for heavy bags, drums or other weighty, awkward items;
• special trolleys to move and tilt 200 litre drums;
• picket drivers for fencing; *
• small mobile hoists or forklifts;
• a fixed hoist on the utility or truck;
• mobile ramps or skids for loading and unloading trucks or utes;
• crow bars, barrows, pulleys, hooks and jacks.

Fence picket injuries

Steel fence pickets can inflict nasty injuries on workers using metal pipe drivers.  Unless the pipe section is long enough, the picket can dislodge at the top of the upstroke, and the downstroke can bring the worker's arm down on the picket.  Make sure the pipe section is long enough to minimise these risks. Minimum pipe length should be 600 mm. Take into consideration the size and strength of the worker.  Safe procedure should include instruction and training to ensure the worker's upswing does not exceed the length of the pipe.

F.       Long Term effects of Farm Noise

Noise from farm tools and machinery can cause permanent hearing loss. Hearing loss may be temporary at first, but repeated exposure will lead to permanent damage. The damage can occur gradually over a number of years and remain unnoticed until it is too late. Some noises, such as gunshots, are so loud they can cause immediate permanent damage.

The noise exposure standard for an eight hour day is 90 dB(A). The exposure standard for peak noise - for example gunshot - is 140 dB.

Spot the hazard

Some early warning signs of hearing loss include:

• ringing in the ears after work;
• difficulty understanding a normal conversation;
• turning up the volume on radio or television when others appear to hear adequately;
• failing to hear background noises, such as a ringing telephone or doorbell.

Typical farm noises that can damage hearing include:

• tractor (95-100dB(A))
• header (88-90dB(A))
• orchard sprayer (85-100dB(A))
• angle grinder (95-105dB(A))
• bench grinder (90-95dB(A))
• chainsaw (105-120dB(A))
• pig shed at feed time (95-105dB(A))
• shotgun (over 140 dB(lin)).

Assess the risk

If you have to shout above noise to be heard by someone a metre away, your hearing could be at risk. If noise cannot be reduced or removed at its source, and if there is no other way to separate people from damaging noise exposure, protective hearing equipment must be worn. Some farmers employ a noise consultant to take noise readings, assess hearing risks and recommend preventive measures.

Make the changes

You can reduce noise at its source by:

• purchasing quieter machinery and equipment;
• modifying equipment to reduce noise;
• keeping machinery well maintained;
• if practicable, running machinery at lower revs.

You can protect people from loud noise exposure by:

• limiting the time workers spend in a noisy environment.
• isolating work areas from noisy machinery using distance or insulation;
• scheduling noisy work when fewer workers are around;
• using job rotation to alternate noisy jobs with quiet ones.

Protective equipment

• Where noise exposure cannot be reduced, hearing protection should be worn, e.g. on open tractors, when shooting, or when using a chainsaw.
• Try on ear muffs before buying, to ensure comfort and a sound-proof fit.
• The higher the SLC 80 (sound level conversion) figure for hearing protection, the higher the protection.
• Use lower SLC 80 muffs for moderately noisy jobs - a high rating might mask out important danger warning sounds.
• Ear plugs may be more comfortable for some farmers, but must be inserted with clean hands. Re-usable plugs must be cleaned regularly. Cotton wool is not sufficient.
• Clean and maintain hearing protectors. Replace worn or damaged parts. Keep protectors near the area of noisy activity, e.g. in the tractor cab.
• Wear a combination of ear muffs and ear plugs when shooting.

Remember : Once hearing is gone, it is gone forever, and hearing aids are of little help. They can make speech louder, but they cannot make it clearer.

G.                Working Safely With Silos

Whenever anyone installs, climbs, enters, fumigates, fills or empties a silo, significant risks may be involved.

Hazards can include insufficient oxygen, toxic gas, explosive atmospheres, unguarded machinery, electricity, grain trapping, silos collapsing, and falls from heights.

There are also significant risks for unsupervised children.

Spot the hazard

Keeping in mind potential hazard areas, conduct a safety audit of your silo and grain storage system. Include machinery used in and around silos, especially grain augers, which can trap limbs and clothing unless adequately guarded, and are prone to tipping unless erected and transported safely.

Look closely at any part of the system that could injure or harm people on the farm, especially children. Check silo ladders, both external and internal, edge protection, and safe procedures for fumigation, dislodging bridged grain, and rescuing somebody trapped inside.

Assess the risk

Check whether identified hazards present risk of serious injury, and consider ways risks can be minimised.

Make the changes

To help farmers make the necessary safety changes, here are some suggestions:

• Remember, grain dust in silos can be become explosive, particularly if humidity is low.
• Don't smoke near silos, and avoid causing sparks from metal friction or electric switches.
• Carbon dioxide in a silo can displace oxygen and cause suffocation.
• High temperatures can cause heat stress for people inside a silo.
• Do the job from outside if possible.
• Wear respiratory equipment when appropriate.

Safe fumigation

• Ventilate fumigated silos before entering.
• Always follow the manufacturer's recommended safe ventilation period.
• Open phosphine containers in the open air, not in the shed or silo.
• Hold the container away from your face, and position yourself upwind.
• Wear protective clothing and equipment.
• Have someone standing by when fumigating.
• Place phosphine tablets into the silo from the roof using a tube.
• Clearly mark all areas under fumigation with "DANGER UNDER FUMIGATION" signs.

Avoid grain suffocation

• Don't enter a silo unless you have to.
• If you enter a silo, have someone standing by in case of difficulties.
• Never enter a silo without turning off the auger and ensuring no-one can start filling or emptying the silo while you are inside.
• Stay on the ladder above the level of compacted or bridged grain while dislodging it.
• Ensure external ladders start at a height inaccessible to children.

Check machinery

• Guard auger drive train (belts, pulleys, drive shafts) and the rotating screw fitting.
• Locate mobile augers on firm, preferably flat ground, and operate at a shallow angle (less than 45deg) to prevent overbalancing.
• Lower mobile augers when transporting.
• Never start augers hidden from your view before checking the area is clear of people.

Avoid structural failures

• Every stored material has different structural characteristics - a silo designed to store one product may not be suitable for another. Care must be exercised whenever a new product is stored in a silo.
• Follow manufacturer's instructions exactly in preparing the concrete pad.
• Use "bedding-in" procedure when filling a silo, by drawing off a rubbish bin full of grain.
• Keep people, specially children, well clear when filling or emptying a silo.
• Seemingly simple changes to a silo can drastically alter its structural stability. Consult an engineer before any alterations are made. Equipment attached to silos can also impose dangerous loads.

Avoid falls

• Provide roof fall protection in the form of a simple edge rail.
• Install an external ladder cage where required.
• Provide a permanently hinged wire mesh guard on all external openings above the maximum level of grain.
• Use a safety harness.

Emergency procedures

• If trapped by grain don't panic - the grain will pack tighter. Shield your face and chest with arms and clothing to create space for breathing.
• Plan your escape. Always have a person watch from the outside. The watcher should have clear instructions what to do in an emergency. The first instruction is: "Don't follow me in."
• If only one person is on standby and cannot pull you out without entering, they must call for help. Only then may someone enter, wearing a breathing apparatus and a life-line. One or more people outside can help to pull you out.
• If someone else is trapped in a grain silo, empty the bin by opening any side outlet, then cut flaps in the cone or walls all around the base using power tools.

H.                Dangers From Hay Baling Operations

Large hay bales, some weighing up to 800 kg, have killed and seriously injured many farm workers in Australia. Bales, both round and rectangular, can fall on tractor and forklift operators , topple off stacks and vehicles on workers or bystanders, and collapse when stacks fail.

Spot the hazard

Look for hazards relating to:

Handling:

• Children playing near hay balers, carriers and stackers.
• Training of operators handling tractors, front-end loaders or forklifts.
• Use of two-poster tractor ROPS for baling - they offer no operator protection from bales falling back off forks or bale-loading frames. Tractors with cabs, FOPS (fall on protective structure) or four-poster ROPS are safer.
• Makeshift or poorly fitting bale-loading attachments on tractors and forklifts.
• Carrying bales too high off the ground.
• Insufficient counterbalance on tractor or forklift vehicle.
• Hydraulic control valve should be specific to the front-end loader attachment.

Baler operation:

• Baler properly connected to the tractor.
• Adequate safety guards fitted.
• Nobody allowed to ride on the baler.
• Prevent others getting too close to the baler.
• Build-up of loose, combustible material in the baler.
• Fire extinguisher fitted to the machine.
• Disengage PTO and apply fly wheel brake prior to making baler adjustments.
• Stop engine and apply fly wheel brake before repairs or "stringing up" the baler.
• Extra care and attention when reversing or turning the machine,
• working at night,
• loading onto a truck, and unloading.

Stacking:

• Loading and stacking on uneven ground.
• Stacks under or near overhead powerlines
• Stacks of round bales inadequately chocked and border posted.
• Damaged bales at base of stack - eg from vehicles, cattle or rodents.
• Unstable heights and loose stacking.
• Bales stacked higher than safe operating height of farm tractor or forklift.
• Children playing on stacked bales, particularly during stacking or unstacking.
• Lack of training, experience and protection for people doing hay baling, stacking and loading.
• Handling more bales than safe for the loader.

Transporting:

• Sturdiness of trailers carrying heavy loads of bales.
• Restraining frames back and front of trailer.
• Hooks fitted so ropes can be used to secure load.
• Roads too close to or below powerlines.
• Rough terrain causing bales to become unstable.
• Safe speeds at all times.
• People riding on loaded hay trailers - highly dangerous.

Assess the risk

Check each hazard that has been spotted to assess:

• Likelihood - how likely is this hazard to injure someone? and
• Severity - how severe would that injury be?

List all the hay baling and stacking hazards spotted, and number them in order of priority, so that those most likely to cause injury or harm can be tackled first.

Because most large hay bales can kill or seriously injure anyone they fall or roll on, any risk of a hazardous incident should be assessed as requiring urgent attention. And as children are the most vulnerable, consider child injury risks top priority.

Make the changes

Handling:

• Keep children away from hay baling and stacking operations.
• Make sure operators and handlers are properly trained and physically capable of tasks.
• Consider fall-arrest protection for people working at heights.
• Use tractors with four-poster ROPS, FOPS or cabs for protection against falling bales.
• Replace risky attachments with manufacturer approved attachments.
• Ensure loader or forklift operators transport bales close to the ground.
• Avoid sharp turns and unsafe speeds.
• Make sure vehicle controls are fitted specifically for the attachment in use.

Stacking:

• Stacks should be on firm, level ground, away from fire hazards, sources of ignition, overhead powerlines, dwellings, boundary fences and footpaths.
• Make sure stack and load heights do not exceed the lifting capabilities of the farm handling equipment.
• Big bales should be stacked to a maximum of four bales high.
• High density bales can be stacked up to six layers high.
• Wherever possible, stack big rectangular, square or high density bales by overlapping, to form a stable stack.
• Do not use bale lifting equipment to raise people on or off stacks.

Transporting:

• Do not allow people to ride on stacked trailers.
• Be aware of overhead obstructions, like trees, bridges and powerlines.
• Avoid rough ground that could cause bales to dislodge.
• Ensure loads are adequately secured.
• Do not overload vehicles beyond legal limits.

I.                   Protecting Yourself When Fire Fighting

Teamwork, planning and communication are vital to the safety of people fighting fires, burning off or doing other fire prevention work.

Spot the hazard

The main hazards are smoke inhalation and radiant heat. Associated hazards relate to training and safe fire fighting practices, communication between firefighters, other people involved, wind and weather conditions, terrain and vegetation, threatened buildings and their contents, availability of water and fire fighting machinery.

People on farms should know how to contact the area fire control officer.

Assess the risk

Safe fire fighting procedures involve constantly assessing risks and their potential to endanger life and property, and minimising them where possible.

Make the changes

The following safety rules help firefighters minimise risks.

• Never work alone.
• Anticipate fire changes due to wind, topography and fuel type.
• Watch for erratic fire behaviour.
• Beware of burning limbs and trees in previously burnt country - look up and live.
• Keep clear of all vehicles or machinery - the operator may not see you.
• Avoid steep slopes above a fire.
• Observe and keep in mind local topography:
• the position of tracks, clearings, creeks and other relevant spots or landmarks
• avoid danger areas like steep slopes, dense vegetation and deep, narrow gullies.
• Select escape routes before entering the fire zone.
• Obtain the latest forecast with particular attention to wind changes.
• Remember a general forecast may not apply in your area due to fire effects, terrain or local factors.
• Relate local weather to possible fire behaviour.

Personal effort

• Maintain self control under threat situations.
• Panic is infectious and drains energy.
• Avoid exhaustion from over-exertion or prolonged periods of effort.
• Avoid unnecessary shouting or whistling - it may confuse others.

Limits of endurance

• Lack of rest reduces physical strength, the ability to think clearly and speed of reactions - arrange relief for yourself and your team.
• Take a break at every opportunity.
• If feeling ill, drowsy, faint or nauseated, take action for heat stress.

Drinking

• To do without water for long periods is a mistake. Dehydration can make you sluggish, irritable, impatient, muddle-headed, tired and sleepy.
• When sweating freely, replace body fluids and salts. Drinking small quantities frequently is better than having one big gulp every hour.
• Replace salt by taking salt in food and drink, e.g. Vegemite or lightly salted water (one level teaspoon per litre).
• Aerated drinks blow up the stomach and make hard work uncomfortable. Beer does not help either.
• No alcoholic drinks. Wait until the fire is finished before 'one with the boys'.

Protective clothing

• Guard against falling objects - wear an approved safety helmet.
• Make sure your helmet is properly adjusted. In severe conditions, wear a chin strap.
• Wear safety glasses, goggles or a face shield to prevent injury from windblown dust, smoke irritation or during chainsaw operations.
• Working boots must be in good condition. Wear approved safety boots.
• Woollen clothing offers some protection against fire.

Heat and smoke

• Protect against radiant heat.
• Take refuge:
  • light a back burn and use burnt country as a refuge;
  • use gravel pits, or clearings in the forest and roads;
  • lie down on the ground - air is freshest and coolest at ground level.
• Use vehicles to shelter from radiation when the temperature becomes uncomfortable.
• Don't take refuge in elevated water tanks. Immersion in lukewarm water can kill.
• Limit breathing rate when smoke is dense - wait for small pockets of fresh air.
• Dense hot smoke could damage lungs, but hot dry air can be breathed for some time without lung damage.
• If it is necessary to move through the flames:
  • don't linger in front of the flames;
  • use clothing to the best advantage as a shield;
  • select an opening where flame height is lowest;
  • move through the flames onto burnt ground as quickly as possible;
  • beware always of the danger from falling limbs and trees in burnt country.
• As a last resort, if trapped, lie on the ground taking advantage of any protection available.

Be sure to:

• Beware of falling limbs and trees.
• Know the local topography.
• Drink plenty of fluids.

J.       Long Term Effects of Whole Body Vibrations

Introduction: In the UK research by the Government’s Health and Safety Executive has shown that operators of self-propelled agricultural machinery are exposed, for half of all working days, to whole-body vibration, at levels which can cause severe discomfort and a risk of back injury (see Glossary for more information).  The most widely reported WBV injury is back pain. Prolonged exposure can lead to considerable pain and time off work and may result in permanent injury and having to give up work.

Note: There are many sources of back injury in addition to WBV which must be adequately controlled if risk of back pain and injury is to be minimised.

What should be done?: Much can be done to reduce WBV.

Decide who is at risk: Drivers using tractors or mobile agricultural machinery for long periods of time are at risk. Table 1 may help you decide when drivers are likely to be at greatest risk. If the actions suggested below have been taken, you may wish to have WBV exposures measured to help decide if any more action is appropriate.

Reducing the risk of WBV injury: The following actions are suggested to help reduce the risk of WBV injury:

Inform: Drivers can control their exposure to WBV when they know the risks and the steps they can take to reduce their exposure. Steps include:

• making full and proper use of seat position and suspension adjustments - drivers should be able to easily reach the pedals, know how to use any back support, adjust the seat so it provides support for their thighs and adjust the suspension mechanism correctly for their weight.
• choosing a speed appropriate for the ground they are driving over - control of WBV should be used to reduce the risk of injury, NOT increase productivity.
• selecting a course to avoid potholes, ruts, bumps, etc as much as possible.

Maintenance: Engineering control of WBV exposure largely depends on suspension systems. Seat, cab and chassis suspensions should be checked and lubricated and maintained as recommended by the manufacturer.

Suspension seats often have a working life shorter than that of the vehicle they are fitted to. It is essential that the seat is kept in good working order and is replaced when worn out. The vibration dampers in the seat can wear out and these may need to be replaced during the working life of the seat.

Maintain tracks, etc to a high standard to make them smooth as possible.

Selecting machinery: Manufacturers have a duty to supply machinery (but not agricultural tractors) with low vibration emissions and inform buyers of the WBV emission level. Choose equipment with low WBV emission levels but only compare levels if the measurements have been made using the same method. Ask suppliers for additional information such as likely vibration emissions for the work the vehicle is most likely to do.

Agricultural tractors must be fitted with seats that have passed a vibration test but there is no legal duty to provide further information.

Suspensions: Some vehicles have cab or chassis suspension in addition to or in place of seat suspension, that will reduce exposure to WBV. Check with the supplier that the suspension(s) fitted will reduce WBV in the intended application(s) - suspensions can amplify vibration if used in the wrong circumstances!

Suspended seats need to be properly adjusted to the middle of the suspension range for the driver's weight - some seats are self-adjusting.

The vehicle should not be driven so fast that the suspensions reach the end of their travel and hit end stops, causing jolts that may injure the user.

Job rotation: In some circumstances it may be appropriate to share driving activities among the workforce but beware of increasing the numbers exposed to risk.

Symptom reporting: Encourage workers to report back injuries and any back pain so that you can take action to stop it getting worse.

You can get further information from your local HSE office. The address is in the phone book listed under Health and Safety Executive.

K.       Overhead Power Lines

Introduction

In the UK, about five people are killed every year in accidents involving overhead power lines (OHPLs) during agricultural work.  Machinery (like combines, tipping trailers, boom sprayers, loaders); equipment (such as irrigation pipes and ladders); and activities (eg stacking) are often involved.  Contact with the lines does not need to be made. Electricity can flash over when machinery or equipment gets close to overhead lines.  Most incidents involve high-voltage lines supported on wooden poles, but the dangers of other power lines such as those supported on steel towers or steel poles and concrete structures cannot be ignored.

Planning precautions

1. Consult your local electricity company and /or your National Grid Company for lines on steel towers operating at 275 and 400 kV. (The operating voltage will be displayed on a sign attached to the tower.)  They will provide free information and advice about precautions and safe working procedures which can be followed near power lines.
2. Find out the maximum height and maximum vertical reach of your machines and those used by contractors.
3. Find out the routes of all overhead lines on your land or near your boundaries.  Mark them on the farm map.  The electricity company should give you this information.
4. Make sure you have information about all the lines on your land - if not, contact the owners of those lines.
5. Make sure you have details of the maximum working heights permitted under each span of overhead line on your farm and adjacent to each structure. Mark these on the farm map.  The farm map can be used as a reference when planning cropping or other work, instructing machine operators and contractors, or buying new equipment.  In cases where there is a significant risk, it is sensible to discuss the following measures with the electricity company:
6. Access: creating alternative access points and routes - this is often the cheapest option.
7. Divert lines: benefits can arise from burying lines or changing routes - an option particularly suited to farmyards.
8. Barriers and goalposts: by erecting “goalposts” and barriers, machines which have to pass beneath lines can be limited to a safe height – an option especially suited to gateways and tracks.

Selection of machinery

The risks of contact or flashover can be greatly reduced by selecting machinery that will not reach more than 4 m

from the ground.  Check the working heights of your machines and the maximum heights that folding elements can reach. Check with the manufacturer or supplier if necessary.

Use of machinery

Accidents can be prevented if the following operations are not carried out within a horizontal distance of at least 9m from power lines on wooden poles or at least 15m from lines on metal towers.  These distances should be measured from the line of the nearest conductor to the work, projected vertically downwards onto the floor, and perpendicular to the route of the line.  The operations are:

• stacking bales or potato boxes;
• folding sprayer booms;
• tipping trailers or lorries;
• operating materials handlers;
• working on top of combines or other high machinery.

Risks can be reduced by:

• using sprayers with horizontally folding booms;
• never folding sprayer booms on the move;
• taking care not to damage poles and stays;
• making sure machinery can operate safely near any overhead lines;
• fitting shorter radio aerials or repositioning existing ones on high machines so they cannot cause danger;
• carrying irrigation pipes horizontally using two people and not storing pipes or other materials and equipment near or under power lines and their supports;
• designating safe areas for high-risk operations, eg boom folding, telescopic handler use, tipping trailers.

Working safely

Key elements of safe systems of work are:

• Training: Everybody who works near overhead power lines with a machine or equipment needs to know what the dangers of overhead lines are, the precautions to follow and what to do if they do contact a power line.
• Visitors: Contractors are at risk when they work on farms where overhead lines are present. Make sure they know where the lines are and tell them the precautions they need to take. Routes can be marked with safety signs to warn all visitors of the dangers.

EMERGENCY ACTION IF THERE IS AN ACCIDENT

• Never touch an overhead line - even if it has been brought down by machinery, or has fallen.  Never assume lines are dead.
• When a machine is in contact with an overhead line, electrocution is possible if anyone touches both the machine and the ground.  Stay in the machine and lower any raised parts in contact or drive the machine out of the lines if you can.
• If you need to get out to summon help or because of fire, jump out as far as you can without touching any wires or the machine - keep upright and away.
• Get the electricity company to disconnect the supply. Even if the line appears dead, do not touch it - automatic switching may reconnect the power.

Safety representatives

When assessing the risks from OHPLs, talking to your employees about how they do their work can be very valuable.  Use trade union or other employee safety representatives to help you.